OCR A-Level Sociology Paper 1: Socialisation, Culture & Identity

Culture

Refers to the whole way of life of a society and includes values, morals, beliefs, knowledge, norms, traditions, music, language, and fashion.

Values

Strong principles or beliefs.

Norms

Social rules/expectation that govern social behaviour and are often a reflection of values.

Subculture

A minority group of people who share distinctive norms, values & beliefs. These can be based on age, ethnicity or religion (for example).

Culturally diverse

Societies that contain a variety of cultural or ethnic groups.

High Culture

Cultural products and activities that are allocated high status superior to other activities.

Popular Culture

Activities that are enjoyed by the masses.

Global Culture

Products and services that are produced and marketed globally by transnational cooperations (E.g. Coca-Cola).

Transational Corporations

Large companies who conduct their business in various parts of the world (E.g. UK is a global society as we consume films, food, music etc from all over the world).

Identity

How we see ourselves and how others us/you.

Cultural Diversity

Refers to the existence of variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society.

Intercultural Divesity

Cultures that differ from one to another in terms of their values and norms. What is considered normal in one society may be considered offensive in another.

Intracultural Diversity

Refers to the fact that the UK has become a more culturally diverse society where different ethnicities and religions are widely accepted.

Multicultural

Containing and tolerating a diversity of ethnic groups living alongside each other.

Hybrid

A cross between 2 or more things.

Cultural Hybridity

When cultures mix and integrate. For example, British culture is influenced by English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish regional cultures, but is also influenced by aspects of ethnic minorities and global culture. This is evident through immigration. Examples include how we fist-bump which was traditionally seen in black culture, white peers mat be seen wearing hem a tattoos; "Braisians"

The Peer Group

Refers to a group of people that are similarly aged, and are often found in schools. They can be friendships or subcultures.

Tony Sewell

Observed that people want to spend their free time in 'cultural comfort zones', in which they prefer to hang around with those that are from similar backgrounds. Fo example, he found that African-Caribbean boys preferred to socialise with other Black boys rather than middle-class White boys.

Young

Argues that the mass media created a 'bulimic' society in which advertising in the media focused on celebrity culture and rewards which has encouraged people to worship money and materialism. This has created a culture of ENVY in which those from deprived backgrounds commit crime (such as drug dealing) to obtain the materialistic goods that symbolises 'success'.

Secularisation

Refers to the decline in religion in which religious practices and beliefs have become less significant in society and the power and influence of religion.

The visible/formal curriculum

Refers to the academic subjects that are taught in school, in which there are formal exams to gain qualifications. Highly valued by British culture.

The hidden curriculum

The informal and unofficial aspects of culture that children are taught in school. These are routines and organisations of schools, classrooms in which teaching shape the behaviour of those at school. For example, disciplinary sanctions produce conformity.

Canteen culture

A concept that refers to the attitudes and values exhibited by the police in their off duty socialising. This was the normalisation of racist attitudes which contributes to the police stereotyping.

The nature/nurture debate

The academic argument between sociologists who believe that human behaviour is largely the product of nature (particularly peoples genetic make up) and the argument you that the society/social environment in which the individual lives is more important in nurturing and shaping human behaviour.

Nature

Sociolobiologists claim that people inherit characteristics such as intelligence, personality, gendered behaviour, aggressive tendencies etc. For example, many sociologists believe that males and females are made in masculine or feminine ways because of hormonal differences

Sociobiologists

A group of biologists who claim that behaviour originates in biology or genetic make-up

Nurture

There are significant cultural variations across the world in gender behaviour. Feminists criticises sociobiologists arguing that if gender roles were biologically determined, men and women would behave in the same way in all societies. This is evident through Margaret Mead's study into the Tchambuli tribe. Nurture sociologists argue that people are not born with cultural values, or social skills and that they are learnt over time.

Margaret Mead's study into the Tchambuli tribe.

Study that observed that women in the Chambri commmunity were the more powerful individuals and leaders within their villages instead of men. Men were seen as more timid and emotional.

Oxana Malaya

Was brought up by dogs after being neglected by parents and lived in a kennel and began adopted dog-like behaviour.

Social Control

The ways in which abnormal behaviour is discouraged and conformity to the norms and rules of society is reinforced.

Formal agencies of social control

Includes the police, criminal justice system, security services and the government who formally control the behaviour of citizens by enforcing laws. The police enforce the law in a fair manner by policing all sections of society equally. Legal forms of social control can include fines, prison and community service.

Informal agencies of social

Includes families (parental rewards & sanctions), peer groups (reward good behaviour with friendship and bad behaviour bullying them), the media (may critique celebrities for being too fat, may praise charity work), religion (threat of hell-fire for sins, promises a potentially good after life), education (praises for good behaviour, discipline for bad)

Social Identity

How others see you. It's the result of all the experiences a person has been through in terms of socialisation. Shaped by the family, peer group, religion and workplace/

Ghunman

Looked at how ethnicity helps change identity. Observed Asian children and found that tradition, religion and family values (especially respect for the elders and the importance of prayer) were central aspects of their primary socialisation. Found many children to be bilingual in which they were able to speak 2 languages fluently and interchangeably.

Jacobson

Looked at how ethnicity helps change identity. Observed young Pakistani Muslims and found that they adopted a string Islamic identity in responses to the booing US-UK invasion of Afghanistan as well as Israels occupation of Palestinian Territories and Islamophobia.

Hybrid Identity

When one subscribes to 2 or more important cultural roots. For example, a British-born Pakistani may feel a string connection to his parents country of origin and support the Pakistani Cricket team and speak Urdu/Punjabi at home.

Johal

Looked at changing ethnic identities. Found that many Asians subscribed to a dual identity referred to as 'Braisian' in which home-life was very much Asian culture, and would put on a "white mask" in public spaces and interacting with peers.

"White-mask"

A term used by Johal when explaining changing ethnic identities. Referred to how Asians would adopt a dual identity in which they will adopt Asian culture at home and interact differently outside the house.

Back

Looked at changing ethnic identities. Found that white youths were attracted to and adopted many aspects of Black culture, including speech mannerisms, dress codes, music tastes. For example, fist-bumping - this was traditionally seen as black culture.

National Identity

The feeling of being part of a larger community (especially the nation state)

Anderson

Looked at how nationality helps shape identity. He suggests that the nation is an 'imagined community' and national identity is constructed by the media and education. This is through the widespread use of symbols (such as flags), national anthems and highlighting the importance of the Royal Family.

Sardar

Looked at changing national identities. He suggests that the world is in the middle of a global identity crisis as globalisation becomes the norm. This is supported by the advancement of air travel which has allowed distanced countries to become closer, thus allowing for the sharing of different cultures on a large scale. For example, Britain's favourite dish is Chicken Tikka Masala. There are also wide-spread celebrated cultural events such as Eid, Chinese New Year & Diwali.

Stuart Hall

Looked at responses to Globalisation. Claimed that individuals may react to globalisation in 3 different ways. 1. Cultural Homogenisation (some societies may feel that their local culture has been invaded - for example, consuming global brands like Coca-Cola). 2. Cultural Hybridity (when other societies may combine the best of global culture with aspects of their local culture). 3. Cultural Resistance (some cultures may resist the mass culture that globalisation brings) - For example, some Muslims societies defend their Islamic way by discouraging young people from adopting other norms and lifestyles, Birmingham against gay normalisation in education.

Cultural Homogenisation

A term introduced by Stuart Hall as a response to globalisation. Describes how some societies may feel that their local culture has been invaded as people start to consumer global products such as music and brands, for example Coca-Cola.

Cultural Hybridity

A term introduced by Stuart Hall as a response to globalisation. Describes how some societies may combine aspects of global culture with aspects of local culture.

Cultural Resistance

A term introduced by Stuart Hall as a response to globalisation. Describes how some cultures may resist the mass culture that globalisation brings.

Patriarchal Society

A social system that is dominated by men in terms of positions of power, political leadership and control of property. Females are therefore seen and treated as inferior to males.

Oakley

Looked at how gender helps shape identity. Argued that the patriarchal society is archived by 4 processes. 1. Manipulation (encouraging and discouraging behaviour so that it's culturally acceptable based on gender. For example, discouraging boys to cry). 2. Canalisation (channelling children's interests into toys, games and activities that are considered the norm for their gender. For example, football for boys; ballet dancing for girls). 3. Verbal Appellation (using gendered language. For example referring boys as 'little man' and girls as 'princess'. 4. Different Activities (the encouragement of gender-based domestic activities. For example, girls are encouraged to help their mum clean the kitchen; boys help their father maintain the car)

Domestic

Relating to the running of the home or to family relations.

Jackson

Looked at changing gender identities. Named working-class girls that smokes., drinks, swears and disrupting lessons with the intent of being portrayed as cool as the 'ladette'

Connell

Looked at changing gender identities and identified 2 other forms of masculinity. 1. Subordinate Masculinity (refers to males that demonstrate opposing stereotypical characteristics of masculinity. For example 'gay' versions of masculinity who have become socially acceptable). 2. Marginalised Masculinity (refers to a form of masculinity that lacks the stereotypical characteristics of masculinity because the male either disabled/or belongs to an ethnic minority group. You can bring in the Tschambuli Tribe.

Mac and Ghaill

Looked at changing gender identities in terms of males. Suggests that males are experiencing a 'crisis of masculinity'. Described a situation where young males have become increasingly uncertain about masculine identity and the male roles due to the decline due to the deline of traditional male jobs in the heavy industry, in which more women are becoming wage earners in families.

Crisis of masculinity

A term introduced by Mac and Ghaill when looking at changing identities in terms of males. Described a situation where young males have become increasingly uncertain about masculine identity and the male roles due to the decline due to the deline of traditional male jobs in the heavy industry, in which more women are becoming wage earners in families.

Flaudi's study of 'Supur Posse'

Looked at changing gender identities. Studied a young American Subculture called 'Supur Posse' and found that young American males have responded to the 'crisis of masculinity' (ad described by Mac and Ghaill) by blaming the feminist movement for their troubles. She observed that violence is their only remaining source of power.

Upper Class

A social class that is defined by high wealth, privilege (for example: private education & health care). Generally exercise high culture and may benefit from inherited wealth such as land and property.

The Super-rich

A term used to describe the top segment of the Upper Class. They are distinct because of their celebrity status (e.g: Lord Sugar, DJ Khalid)

Middle Class

A social class that is traditionally associated with non-manual work. Consist of people that have had long periods of training in skilled professional work such as law and medicine, and may involve working in a managerial capacity. They may also have connections in the corporate world that can be beneficial to the children.

Upper Middle Class

A term used to describe the upper segment of the Middle Class. Consists of highly paid professionals such as doctors and college principles.

Middle Middle Class

A term used to describe the middle segment of the Middle Class. Consists of lower paid professions such as junior doctors and teachers.

Lower Middle Class

A term used to describe the bottom lower segment of the Middle Class. Consists of office workers such as managers of small retail outlets.

Working Class

A social class that is not regarded highly. Consists of semi-skilled to unskilled manual-based work.

The Underclass

A new type of working-class segment suggested by New Right sociologist Murray. He argued that this sector of the working class consisted of people who were 'work-shy' and was comfortable to depend upon the state welfare benefits. Murray argued that it was this sector of the working class that socialised their children into a deviant manner - note that the majority of crime is committed by this sector in the UK & USA.

Pakulski and Waters

Looked at changing class identities. Argue that social class is no longer important because in the postmodernist society there has been a shift from the production of goods to consumption in which what we buy can create a class identity. For example, Gucci is associated with being from the elite/upper classes, whilst a basic brand of a supermarket may show a lower class.

Savage

Looked at changing class identities. Found that very few people saw Britain as a class-less society.

Weeks

Looked at how sexuality helps change identity. Claimed that sexuality tends to be more strongly linked with those that are homosexual ('gay') then heterosexual ('straight').

Macintosh

Looked at how sexuality helps change identity. Claims that in western societies gay identity is associated with particular characteristics that people use to distinguish a 'gay' men from 'straight' men.

The Equality Act 2010

States that discrimination on the basis of sexuality was unlawful. Note that Gay marriage was legalised in 2014, although some parts of society and religious groups remain to consider homosexuality as immoral.

Bradley

Looked at how age helps shapes identity. Found 5 major generational stages of age identity. 1. Childhood (period of vulnerability and innocence, protected by parents). 2. Youth (period of puberty and more independence and taking more adult-like responsibilities). 3. Middle Age (Leaving parents home, and having more money for leisure - affluence), 4. Old Age (greater dependence, may have high status and wisdom, high experience).

Hackey and James

Looked at how old age shaped identity. Argues that the elderly are rarely treated as independent evident through care homes. Claim that this treatment leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy, in which they are labelled and live up to their label.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

An expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

Featherstone

Looked at how changing age identities. Argues that media images of ageing are changing and are less likely to be disrespectful towards the elderly. This therefore suggests that age identity is significant.

The Medical Model of Disability

A model that looks at disability and identities. It views disabled people as victims of impairments which prevents them from living a full life. The model's view is largely held by medical professionals and is criticised for encouraging non-disabled people to judge and stereotype disabled people in terms of their disability.

The Social Model Disability

A model that looks at disability and identities. Model believes that disabled people fail to look beyond their impairments when interacting with others. Claims that non-disabled people assumes that the identity of disabled people is shaped by their impairments, and they therefore cannot lead a 'normal' life. This is because non-disabled people dominate, they experience negative labelling, they are being stigmatised as a social problem. This gives disabled people a master status which shapes the qualities of their interactions and dominates the way the disabled person is treated in society. This idea is endorsed by Tom Shakespeare ( a disabled sociologist)

Tom Shakespeare

Looks at disability and identities - specifically The Social Model of Disability. Argues that disabled people are disabled by society (which consists of the negative attitudes and stereotypes of non-disabled people). This therefore prevents them from living independent lives as they internalise (conform) and live up to their label which creates social barriers. Employers are reluctant to employ someone with impairments.

Murugani

Looks at changing disabled identities. Claims that a disabled person has the ability to construct a self-identity that accepts their impairment, but be independent of it. They see themselves as the person first.

Social Construct

The term that is used to describe that something is manipulated or created by society.

Spectacular Youth Subcultures

A term used to describe the highly visible and polarising youth subcultures that were prominent between 1950's to the 1970's. They had created social anxiety and media speculation most of the time. Examples include the Teddy Boys, Mods and Rockers, Skineheads and Punks. These groups has instantly recognisable style dress, hairstyles and behaviour.

Value Consensus

A concept introduced by Functionalist sociologist Durkheim. Refers to a shared set of norms and values. Durkheim argues that modern societies experience social order because their values have this crucial concept.

Talcott Parsons

Explained why youth culture is formed. A Functionalist sociologist that saw youths as a transitional stage. Argued that as youths seek greater independence from families, youths develop a sense of belonging from their peers. Stated that the transitional stage from childhood to adulthood is a particularly stressful period in which the individual must negotiate the uncertain path from dependence to independence and adult responsibility. For example, by getting part-time jobs. Argued the 'rite of passage' which referred to the period that individuals must go through between childhood and adulthood.

Rite of Passage

A term used by Functionalist sociologist Talcott Parsons when explaining the role and formation of youth culture. Refers to the period that the individual must go through between childhood and adulthood.

Eisenstadt

Explained why youth culture is formed. A Functionalist sociologist that had similar views to Talcott Parsons (in terms of explaining youth culture). Viewed youth culture as a way of inter grating young people into society. Argued that the phase between childhood and adulthood can create a sense of isolation, stress and anomie (normlessness). Youth culture provides a safe outlet for the tensions that the transition period brings as it allows young people to 'let off steam' and get their frustrations out in an acceptable way and puts down 'high spirits'/hormones. Youth culture therefore functions to minimise social disruption, and encourages social integration which equals social order.

Abram

Explained why the youth culture is formed. A Functionalist sociologist. Wrote an article in the Teenage Consumer and highlighted that the emergence of youth culture brought greater spending power in which businesses began targeting youths and was therefore created by the media.

CCCS Birmingham University Study

Explained why youth culture and youth subcultures were formed. Marxist-based university study. Researched how social class and the economic situation of young people. Most of their studies conclude that spectacular youth subcultures symbolised a reaction to to the economic situation the youths found themselves in. This functioned as a form of ideological opposition to the hegemonic power of the ruling class.

Hegemony

A term used by Marxist sociologists when explaining youth culture and subculture. When socially powerful people use their influence to convince less powerful people it is in their best interest to do what is actually in the most powerful people's best interest.

Margainalise

A word that is mostly used by feminists describing the process of (females) social exclusion and being pushed to the edges of society. Feminists in explaining youth culture and youth subculture argue that studies of deviant subcultures are dominated by males and are therefore biased.

McRobbie and Garber

Explained why youth culture and youth subcultures are formed. A Feminist sociologist. Argued that many sociological studies of youth subcultures reinforce stereotypes of females being 'passive girlfriends' (Passive = accepting or allowing what happens or what others do, without active response or resistance). Researched into girls' friendship groups in the 1970's. Found that girls established more close relationships amongst each other, in which they spent time in each others bedrooms experimenting with fashion, cosmetics, gossiping about boys, listening to pop music and reading magazines. This was described as the 'Bedroom Culture'.

Bedroom Culture

A term used by Feminist sociologists McRobbie and Garber when explaining the formation of youth culture and youth subculture. Refers to the girls spending the majority of their time in each others bedroom experimenting with fashion, cosmetics, gossiping about boys, listening to pop music, and reading magazines.

Thornton

Explained why youth culture and youth subcultures are formed. A Postmodernist sociologist who conducted a study into Club Culture in which club (music) culture is not a single culture, but consists of individuals sharing different music styles and dances. This supports the postmodernist view that globalisation has created greater hybridity which has reduced the significance of youth identity, social class, gender and ethnicity.

Maffesoli

Explained why youth culture and youth subcultures are formed. A Postmodernist sociologist who used the term 'neo-tribes' rather than youth subcultures which are organised groups of young people that don't have a fixed membership, and argues that group identities are no longer formal along traditional social lines such as gender and social class.

Neo-tribes

A term used by Postmodernist Sociologist Maffesoli in which he describes youth subcultures as, arguing that the organised groupings didn't have a fixed membership or fixed identities (such as being gender-based or class-based).

Bennett

Explained why youth culture and youth subcultures are formed. A Postmodernist sociologist who conducted a study of Night-life in Newcastle in 1999 which supported Maffesoli's neo-tribe explanation of youth subcultures in which people move in and out. He claimed that 'neo-tribe' was more applicable than subculture as a subculture suggests a commitment to shared values which may not be the case in modern youth. New-tribes suggest that the group has flexible identities and the mixing of styles.

Polhemus

Explained why youth culture and youth subcultures are formed. A Postmodernist sociologist who argued the concept of the 'Supermarket of Style'. This referred to where young people can pick and choose when constructing their identity. He claims that a commitment to one style is less common, and people may mix modern and retro clothing (for example).

Tony Jefferson

Looked at subcultures in relation to social class. A Neo-Marxist sociologist that studied the Teddy Boy subculture that was popular among the working-class youths in the 1950's. Found that they had an Edwardian-style brightly coloured suits. Took mockery at the fact that the middle-class (who also wore suits) showing they are not socially superior. They used casual violence as a way of resisting the class-system in which they felt excluded.

John Clarke

Looked at subcultures in relation to social class. A Neo-Marxist sociologist that studied the Skinheads in the 1970's. Argued that the Skinhead culture and style was a reaction to the decline of working-class communities. Found that the Skinheads were attempting to recreate the working-class masculine community by dressing up as manual factory workers (such as having rolled-up jeans) and wore work boots.

Phil Cohen

Looked at subcultures in relation to social class. A Neo-Marxist sociologist that studied the Skinheads. Concluded that their racist and aggressive behaviour towards immigration was a reaction to how they saw immigration breaking up their white working-class neighbourhoods. Supports Neo-Marxist John Clarke. The

Punks

A working-class youth subculture that were loud, and listened to an aggressive genre of rock. Had polarising spiked hairstyles, often coloured their hair, and wore tattoos.

Skinheads

A working-class youth subculture that featured shaved heads, heavy work boots, rolled-up jeans and expressed racism in music and were very much nation advocates.

Teddy Boys

A working-class youth subculture that wore brightly coloured Edwardian suits, smoked, had extra long heavily greased hair and a sophisticated appearance.

Mods

A working-class youth subculture that wore suits, had a neat and sharp appearance, aimed to be cool and rode mopeds. They conflicted with the Rockers on Brighton Beach in May 1964.

Rockers

A working-class youth subculture that rode motorcycles (large, heavy and powerful), wore black leather clothing. They conflicted with the Mods on Brighton in May 1964