Learning Psych

Prototype

A mental representation or example of a category.

Schema

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

The process of taking in new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive schemas.

Accommodation

The process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies decision-making.

Representativeness heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on similarities to make judgments.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut based on immediate examples that come to mind.

Mental set

A tendency to approach problems using a mindset that has worked in the past.

Priming

The activation of certain associations to influence behavior or perception.

Framing

The way information is presented can affect decision-making and judgment.

Gambler’s fallacy

The belief that past independent events affect the probabilities in future events.

Sunk-cost fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment has been made.

Divergent thinking

A thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

Convergent thinking

A thought process that focuses on deriving the single best solution to a problem.

Functional fixedness

The inability to see an object as having a function other than its typical one.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

Behavioral perspective

An approach that focuses on observable behaviors and how they're learned.

Association

A mental connection between concepts or events.

Acquisition

The process of developing a conditioned response.

Associative learning

Learning that occurs when two stimuli are linked.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a response.

Unconditioned response (UR)

A naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An originally neutral stimulus that, after association, triggers a conditioned response.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause.

Stimulus discrimination

The learned ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.

Stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Counterconditioning

The process of reversing a conditioned response.

Taste aversion

A learned avoidance of a particular food after it is associated with illness.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Punishment

An event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes become more likely, while those followed by unfavorable outcomes become less likely.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to strengthen a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen a behavior.

Primary reinforcers

Innately satisfying stimuli such as food and water.

Secondary reinforcers

Stimuli that gain their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Reinforcement discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different reinforcement situations.

Reinforcement generalization

The tendency for a response to be reinforced in similar situations.

Shaping

Gradually modifying behavior by reinforcing closer approximations to the desired behavior.

Reinforcement schedules

Rules that determine how and when reinforcement is delivered.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time.

Fixed interval

A reinforcement schedule that rewards only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.

Variable interval

A reinforcement schedule that rewards after an unpredictable amount of time.

Fixed ratio

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces after a set number of responses.

Variable ratio

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses.

Social learning theory

The theory that people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modeling.

created by

Bobo doll experiement: children learn behavior by watching the people around them (they learn to kick the doll

Modeling

Learning by imitating others' behavior.

Insight learning

A sudden realization of how to solve a problem.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but isn't immediately reflected in behavior.

Cognitive maps

Mental representations of physical locations.

Aversive

Bad; something you want to avoid.

Innate

Natural or inherent.

Stimulus

Something that causes a response.

Partial

Not fully; partly.

Impending

Coming soon.

Explicit

Obvious; not implied.

belief bias

people will accept or deny any conclusions based on who it fits with their system of beliefs

belief perserverance

once we have decided to believe something, we will keep believing it

babbling stage

starts at 3-4 monthhs , infant makes spontateos sounds, does not have to be infants language

one word stage

1-2 years old, uses 1 word to communicate big meanings

two word stage

at age 2, uses two words to communicate meanings, called telgraphic speech

Skinner

Thought we could explain lauguage through operant conditioning

Chomsky

Inborn universal grammar

Critic of skinner

We acquire language too quickly for it to be a learned process.

Language acquistion device

Universal grammar

Critical period of learning language

Closes around age 7

Time period where brains are geared for language development .

Cognition

term for thinking, knowing, and remembering

Phonemes

(if spoken - smallest unit of sound

morphemes

smallest unit of meaning (prefix/ suffix)

Grammar

syntax and semantics

Pavlov

Created classical conditioning

Dog bell experiment

Conditioned

learned

Unconditioned

unlearned, innate

Semantics

The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes

Syntax

The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible

Euphemism

A mild or pleasant word or phrase that is used instead of one that is unpleasant

John Watson

did baby albert experiment (kid was exposed to white rat) and expected a loud noise with it)

Behaviorist

1. Should only study observable behaviors (not internal mental states)

2. All behavior is learned

Behavorists

Should only study observable behaviors (not internal mental states)

All behavior is learned

Edward Thorndike

Created law of effect: rewarded behavior is likely to recur

Cat experiment

token economy

Type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens

Accumulated tokens can be used to “purchase” desired items

Learned Helplessness

The tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past

Martin Seligman’s dog experiments:

(Dogs that could not escape a shock due to being harnessed did not seek to escape the shock even when they were not harnessed.)

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others

similar to modeling

Whorf

linguistic determination hypothesis states that: our language shapes our thinking.

linguistic determinism hypothesis

the idea that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought,

Language acquisition

an interaction between biology and experience.

Overgeneralization

Applying a grammatical rule when it shouldn't be used

Rescorla and Wagner

classical conditioning

-demonstrated the predictability of an association.

rats would respond with fear to tones that always preceded electrical shocks.

temporal lobe; operant conditioning

Mirror neurons are found in the brain's ________ and are believed to be the neural basis for ________.

Garcia and Koelling's

In this experiment, rats learned to associate taste with sickness