French Revolution and Napoleon Overview

Key vocabulary terms and definitions related to the French Revolution and Napoleon's era.

Ancien Régime

The political and social system in France before the Revolution, characterized by absolute monarchy and feudal privileges for the nobility and clergy. Resentment over this system would lead influential members of the 3rd estate to attempt political reforms that contributed to the outbreak of the Revolution.

Estates General

The legislative assembly in France that was convened by Louis XVI in 1789, representing the three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners. Louis XVI blocked attempts by the 3rd Estate that led to tensionand ultimately the formation of the National Assembly, marking a pivotal moment in the Revolution.

Storming of the Bastille

A key event in the revolution on July 14, 1789, where revolutionaries attacked the prison-fortress of the Bastille, symbolizing the uprising against tyranny. The event was provoked by the king’s positioning of troops around Paris, which heightened fears of repression and led to a surge in revolutionary fervor among the populace. This act is often regarded as the symbolic start of the French Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

A fundamental document of the French Revolution, adopted in August 1789, in an attempt to calm violence in the countryside and city. It articulates the principles of individual and collective rights, emphasizes universal rights such as liberty, equality, and fraternity, drawing on Enlightenment ideas such as natural rights and social contract theory. The declaration asserts that all men are born free and equal in rights and outlines freedoms including speech, religion, and the press, alongside the right to resist oppression. It was passed along with the August Decrees which abolished feudalism and the old Estates.

Napoleonic Code

The civil code established under Napoleon in 1804, which reformed the French legal system, guaranteeing equality before the law and secularism.

Reign of Terror

A period during the French Revolution (1793-1794) characterized by extreme political repression, leading to thousands of executions of perceived enemies of the revolution. The leading figure of this period is Robespierre who headed the Committee of Public Safety, and urged the use of Terror to weed out political opposition and protect the revolution.

Directory

The government of France from 1795 to 1799 that faced challenges of corruption, economic instability, and political conflict, ultimately overthrown by Napoleon. Successes: Ended the War against France, organized a more stable government, maintained annual elections.

It was characterized by a five-member committee that governed, focusing on restoring order after the Reign of Terror.

Failures: Coup attempts from the left and right; entrusted power to military leaders (Napoleon), leading to its eventual downfall.

Cahiers de doléances

Lists of grievances drawn up by the Third Estate and other social classes prior to the Estates General meeting in 1789, outlining demands for reform. The fact that the lists were not fully addressed contributed to the unrest that led to the Revolution, and suggests that delegates to the estates general sought to reform more than just taxes.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French military leader who rose to prominence during the Revolution, eventually becoming Emperor of France and implementing significant reforms. His successes in Italy spreading revolutionary ideas made him a popular figure in France, and made the Directors see him as a good choice to lead the Coup of Brumaire which replace the Directory with the 3 man Consulate. He implemented the Napoleonic Code, centralized government, and expanded French territories.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

A law passed in July 1790 that reorganized the Catholic Church in France, assigning its authority to the government, which led to conflict with the Church. Priests were supposed to swear an oath of loyalty to the revolutionary government. This law aimed to reduce the influence of the Church and align its practices with revolutionary ideals, leading to a significant rift between church and state. The unpopularity of this law sparked division among the populace and contributed to the counter-revolutionary movement especially in Vendee and Brittany.

Jacques Necker

French finance minister and advisor to King Louis XVI who published the "Compte rendu au roi" to inform the public about the state of the French economy, gaining popularity among the Third Estate. He was seen as a man of the people, though he was disliked by the nobility. His dismissal in 1789 fueled public unrest and marked a turning point in the events leading up to the French Revolution.

Turgot

French economist and finance minister under King Louis XVI, known for his attempts to reform the French economy. His policies included advocating for free trade and reducing government spending, but faced opposition and were eventually unsuccessful.

Educational Reforms of Napoleon

Napoleon emphasized the importance of education in state-building, resulting in the establishment of a centralized education system. He founded lycées (secondary schools) to provide a standardized curriculum, focusing on science, mathematics, and humanities, thereby ensuring the state's control over educational content and producing a literate citizenry.

Brienne

French finance minister who succeeded Turgot and attempted to implement further financial reforms. His policies also faced significant opposition and contributed to unrest leading up to the French Revolution.

absolutism

A political system where a single ruler holds absolute power, often justified by divine right and characterized by the concentration of authority without constitutional limitations. Louis XVI and his predecessors fully believed in divine right, and thus were often unable to effectively address the financial crises that plagued France because they were unable to see the weaknesses of their own actions.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority and tradition. It greatly influenced revolutionary ideas, promoting concepts such as liberty, equality, and the questioning of traditional doctrines (especially the Church and role of monarchy. )

Calonne

French finance minister who succeeded Brienne, known for proposing extensive reforms to address the fiscal crisis but faced opposition from the Parlements (regional governing bodies) and was eventually dismissed. His ideas laid groundwork for further discussions on financial restructuring. .

flight to Varennes

In 1791, the attempted escape of King Louis XVI and his family from Paris to Varennes, which ultimately failed and led to their capture, significantly undermining the monarchy's credibility and strengthening revolutionary sentiment.

Champs du Mars Massacre

A violent event in July 1791 during a large public gathering in Paris, where French National Guard troop fired on a crowd who were angered about Louis’ attempted escape ( flight to Varennes), and were demanding constitutional reforms. It significant casualties and increasing tensions between the revolutionary government and its opponents.

August Decrees

A series of laws passed in August 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, abolishing feudal privileges and marking a key step in the transition towards a more egalitarian society in revolutionary France. The emergency measures were passed in response to the Great Fear, violence that had overtaken the French countryside

Great Fear

A period of panic and riot by peasants in France during July and August 1789, driven by rumors of an aristocratic conspiracy to suppress the revolution. This widespread unrest prompted significant social and political changes, including the August Decrees.

Parlements

The sovereign courts of justice in France before the Revolution, which held significant power in regulating royal authority and enforcing laws. Parlements played a crucial role in resisting certain royal decrees and were influential in the political landscape of pre-revolutionary France.

September Massacres

The events that occurred in Paris during September 1792, when angry crowds executed thousands of prisoners, including many aristocrats and political prisoners, fearing they would join invading Austrian forces that were closing in around Paris. This massacre reflected the intense paranoia and violence of the revolutionary period.

Storming of the Tuileries

A pivotal event during the French Revolution on August 10, 1792, where revolutionaries attacked the royal palace (the Tuileries palace), leading to the arrest of King Louis XVI and the fall of the monarchy.

Law of Suspects

Legislation passed in September 1793 under the National Convention/ Committee of Public Safety government that broadened the definitions of political crimes, allowing for the arrest and detention of individuals suspected of counter-revolutionary activities, significantly intensifying the Reign of Terror.

Law of Maximums

Legislation enacted in 1793 (National Convention/ Committee of Public Safety) to control prices and wages during the French Revolution, aimed at addressing food shortages and economic distress among the populace.

Georges Danton

A leading figure in the radical stage of the French Revolution, Danton was known for his oratory skills and role in the establishment of the First French Republic. He later became a prominent member of the Committee of Public Safety but was eventually executed during the Reign of Terror.

Robespierre

Abbe Sieyes '“What is the Third Estate?”

A pamphlet published in 1789 by Abbé Sieyès that argued that the Third Estate constituted the majority of the population and should have greater political power, challenging the existing social hierarchy of the French society. It significantly contributed to the rising tensions on the eve of the French Revolution’s outbreak in July 1789

Abbe Sieyes as Director

A member of the Directory after the fall of Robespierre, Abbé Sieyès played a key role in shaping the French government and was instrumental in the coup of 18 Brumaire, which led to the rise of Napoleon.

Paul Barras

A prominent figure in the Directory who played a significant role in French politics during the post-Revolutionary period. He was a key supporter of Napoleon's rise to power and served as a general and politician. He would be part of Napoleon’s government by helping censor the press and repress political opposition

Joseph Fouche

A French minister of police who played a pivotal role in the political repressions of the Napoleonic era. Fouché was known for his network of spies and effectiveness in controlling dissent during Napoleon's regime.

Assembly of Notables

A consultative assembly convened by Louis XVI in 1787 to address fiscal reforms and taxation issues. It consisted of representatives from the nobility and clergy, but it refused to approve any tax reforms and was ultimately dismissed, highlighting the growing discontent with the monarchy and paving the way for the Estates-General.

Tennis Court Oath

A pivotal event during the French Revolution where members of the Third Estate vowed not to disband until a new constitution was established, reflecting their commitment to reform and resistance against the monarchy.

October Days

A series of protests in October 1789, led primarily by market women, that resulted in the royal family and the National Assembly being forced to move from Versailles to Paris, symbolizing the growing influence of the populace in the Revolution. It suggests that public violence was growing and shaping the course of the revolution

Concordat of 1801

An agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII that reestablished the Catholic Church in France, gaining the support of French Catholics while solidifying Napoleon's authority. It is significant because it ended tensions between revolutionary and religious factions, facilitating a more stable government.

Civil Code (Napoleonic Code)

A comprehensive set of laws established by Napoleon in 1804, which reformed the legal system in France, emphasizing equality before the law, the abolition of feudal privileges, and the protection of property rights. It protected many of the gains of the French Revolution and aimed to create a unified legal framework for all citizens, but also is seen as somewhat reactionary because it rolled back women's rights and centralized power under the state.

Vendee and Chouans

A region in western France that experienced a counter-revolutionary uprising during the French Revolution, where royalist and peasant forces, known as the Chouans, fought against revolutionary authorities. This conflict highlighted the deep divisions within France and resistance to central authority. The counter-revolution would be a major problem that partially allowed for the rise of radical factions like the Committee of Public Safety to gain control and enforce revolutionary measures.

Girondins

A political faction during the French Revolution that represented the moderate republican side and was primarily composed of members from the provinces. They were known for advocating for war against Austria and were eventually ousted by more radical factions, particularly the Jacobins.

Jacobins

A radical political group during the French Revolution that advocated for the extension of revolutionary ideals and more centralized power. They played a significant role in the Reign of Terror, targeting perceived enemies of the revolution and pushing for the establishment of a republic.

sans culottes

A radical faction within the Jacobin Club during the French Revolution, known for its association with the poorer classes of Paris and for advocating extreme measures, including the use of terror to support revolutionary goals.

assignats

Paper currency issued during the French Revolution, intended to stabilize the economy by using the value of confiscated church property. Assignats played a significant role in financing the revolutionary government but eventually led to inflation and economic instability.

coup of Fructidor

A coup that took place in September 1797 in France, resulting in the annulment of elections and the consolidation of power by the Directory. This event marked an essential step towards the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Vendamaire uprising

An armed uprising that occurred in October 1795, when royalists attempted to overthrow the Directory. The government's forces, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, successfully defended the regime and helped solidify his reputation as a supporter of the revolutionary government.

Coup of Brumaire

A coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in November 1799 that overthrew the Directory, effectively ending the French Revolution and establishing the Consulate, with Napoleon as one of its leaders.