Introduction to criminal justice Final Exam Made by ME

Crime control model

A model of criminal justice emphasizing the reduction of crime through aggressive policing and increased law enforcement, prioritizing public safety over individual rights.

Due process model

A model of criminal justice focusing on the protection of individual rights and ensuring fair treatment under the law, emphasizing legal procedures and constitutional safeguards.

Mala in se

Crimes that are inherently wrong or immoral, such as murder and theft, regardless of whether they are prohibited by law.

Mala prohibitia

Crimes that are considered wrong because they are prohibited by law, such as drug offenses and gambling, rather than being inherently immoral.

Cybercrime

A type of crime that involves computers and networks, including activities like hacking, identity theft, and online fraud.

UCR

Stands for Uniform Crime Reporting, a program by the FBI that compiles crime statistics from law enforcement agencies across the United States.

NCVS

The National Crime Victimization Survey, which collects data on crime victimization directly from individuals, providing insight into unreported crimes and helping to understand the extent of crime in the United States.

Edwin Sutherland (differential association theory)

A sociological concept proposed by Edwin Sutherland, stating that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others, particularly within intimate personal groups.

Most likely victim of crime / least likely victim of crime?

Men are the crime victim, Women least

Men vs. Women criminality

This refers to the differences in crime rates and types of offenses committed by men and women, often highlighting that men are more frequently involved in criminal activity than women.

Social structure theories

Theories examining how societal structures, such as class, economic status, and environment, influence criminal behavior and the likelihood of offending. These theories suggest that crime is a product of social conditions and socioeconomic factors.

Discretion

The power or right to make choices based on one's judgment, often used by law enforcement and judicial officials in the administration of justice.

Labeling Theory

A sociological perspective that suggests that the labels society assigns to individuals can significantly influence their self-identity and behavior, potentially leading to a continuation of criminal behavior.

Control Theory

A theory that posits that social ties and bonds to family, school, and other institutions discourage individuals from engaging in criminal behavior. It emphasizes the role of socialization in preventing delinquency.

Dual court system

The structure of the American judicial system, which divides authority between federal and state courts, each having their own jurisdiction.

Arrest, booking, charging

The processes involved in apprehending a suspect, formally recording their arrest, and filing charges against them in the criminal justice system.

Trial, appeal

A legal procedure where a case is examined before a judge or jury, followed by a review of the decision made in the trial, typically by a higher court.

Common law vs. case law

Common law refers to laws developed through judicial decisions and precedents, whereas case law consists of those legal principles established through particular court rulings.

Actus reus

The physical act or conduct that constitutes a criminal offense, required for a defendant to be found guilty.

Mens rea

The mental state or intent of a person while committing a criminal act, necessary to establish guilt.

Insanity defenses

Legal excuses for criminal acts due to mental illness or incapacity, asserting the defendant was unable to understand the nature of their actions or distinguish right from wrong at the time of the offense.

Frankenpledge

An early form of community policing in Anglo-Saxon England, where a group of ten families was collectively responsible for each other's behavior and involvement in crime.

Robert Peel “bobbies”

Refers to the police officers established by Sir Robert Peel in England, known for their principles of ethical policing and community service.

Era of policing: political

A period in the history of policing characterized by close ties between police forces and politicians, often leading to corruption and favoritism in law enforcement.

Era of policing: professional

A period in the early to mid-20th century characterized by the rise of police professionalism, centralized control, and an emphasis on crime fighting rather than community relations.

Era of policing: Community

A period in policing characterized by a focus on building relationships and partnerships with community members to prevent crime and solve local issues.

Incident-driven policing

A policing strategy focused on responding to specific incidents rather than proactive crime prevention, often relying on emergency calls and dispatch.

Search and seizure

The process by which law enforcement officers investigate and gather evidence by entering a property and taking possessions, adhering to legal standards and constitutional protections.

Probable cause

A reasonable belief that a person has committed a crime or that evidence of a crime can be found in a specific location, necessary for obtaining a search warrant or making an arrest.

Reasonable suspicion

A legal standard less than probable cause, based on specific and articulable facts that a crime may be occurring or has occurred, allowing law enforcement to briefly detain or investigate.

Totality of the circumstances

A legal standard used to determine whether an officer had reasonable suspicion or probable cause based on the overall context and facts of a situation.

Plain view doctrine

The legal principle that allows law enforcement to seize evidence of a crime without a warrant if it is clearly visible.

Inevitable discovery doctrine

A legal principle that allows evidence obtained illegally to be admissible in court if the prosecution can show that the evidence would have inevitably been discovered through lawful means.

Privilege against self-incrimination

A legal right that allows individuals to refuse to answer questions or provide information that would implicate them in a crime, protecting against self-incrimination.

Kansas City Preventative patrol experiment

A study conducted in the 1970s examining the effectiveness of random patrols in reducing crime rates. It found that increased police presence did not lead to significant reductions in crime.

Foot patrol

A type of policing strategy where officers walk on foot in specific areas to enhance community relations and deter crime, shown to affect crime rates positively.

Motor patrol

A method of police patrol where officers use vehicles to cover larger areas quickly and efficiently, often focusing on deterrence and response to incidents.

Problem-oriented policing (Herman Goldstein)

A policing strategy that involves identifying and analyzing specific crime problems to develop effective response strategies. It emphasizes proactive problem-solving rather than reactive responses.

Tennessee v. Garner (1985)

A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled it unconstitutional for police to use deadly force against a fleeing suspect unless it is necessary to prevent imminent harm to others.

Courts- appellate courts

Courts that review decisions made by lower courts, focusing on legal principles and procedures rather than factual disputes.

Bail- preventative detention

A legal mechanism that allows for the detention of a defendant before trial if they are deemed a flight risk or a danger to the community, without the option for bail.

Merit selection- partisan

A method of selecting judges in which candidates are nominated by a committee and then chosen by voters, often with political parties involved in the process.

Nonpartisan elections

Elections in which candidates are selected without party affiliation, emphasizing individual qualifications over political alignment.

Assigned counsel

A legal representation system where private attorneys are appointed to represent indigent defendants in criminal cases.

Contract counsel

A system where private attorneys are hired through a contract to provide legal representation for indigent defendants in criminal cases, often as a cost-effective alternative to assigned counsel.

Legal sufficiency model

A framework used to evaluate whether a case meets the minimum legal standards to proceed in the judicial system, focusing on the evidence available.

Trial sufficiency

model

Is a standard used to determine whether the evidence presented by prosecutors is adequate to warrant a trial.

System efficiency model

A framework that assesses the overall effectiveness and efficiency of the criminal justice system in processing cases, emphasizing timely resolution and resource management.

Bench Trial

A trial conducted by a judge rather than a jury, where the judge makes the final ruling on the case.

Jury trial

A legal proceeding where a group of jurors evaluates the evidence and reaches a verdict on the accused's guilt or innocence, as opposed to a bench trial where a judge decides the case.

Circumstantial evidence

Evidence that relies on inference to connect it to a conclusion of fact, rather than direct proof.

Local legal culture

Refers to the attitudes, beliefs, and practices of legal professionals and institutions within a specific geographic area, influencing how law is applied and understood in that locale.

Voir dire

The process of selecting a jury by questioning potential jurors to determine their suitability for serving on a jury.

General deterrence

A strategy aimed at preventing crime by instilling the fear of punishment in the general public, thereby discouraging potential offenders.

Specific deterrence

The strategy of preventing crime by imposing penalties that are aimed at individual offenders to discourage them from reoffending.

Gaols & Hulks

Historical terms for prisons and ships used as temporary holding facilities for offenders before legal outcomes.

Pennsylvania & Auburn Correctional

Systems, two different approaches to prison design and management that emphasize either rehabilitation or strict discipline.

Retribution- revenge models

Of punishment in criminal justice that focus on exacting a penalty on offenders, based on the belief that they deserve to suffer for their crimes.

Reintegration- community corrections

Programs aimed at helping offenders transition back into the community after incarceration, focusing on rehabilitation and support.

Electronic monitoring

A method used in community corrections that involves the use of technology to supervise offenders in a non-incarcerated setting, ensuring compliance with conditions of release.

Congregate systems

A prison management system where inmates are kept in isolation at night but must work and eat together during the day, promoting discipline and labor.

Boot camp/shock incarceration

A correctional program designed to serve as an alternative to traditional incarceration by providing a military-style environment that emphasizes discipline, physical training, and rehabilitation.

Fine, forfeiture

Monetary penalties imposed on offenders as punishment or a loss of property to the state due to criminal activity.

Intensive vs. regular probation

Intensive probation involves stricter supervision and more frequent check-ins compared to regular probation, which has standard monitoring and less intensive requirements.

Enlightment era

A period in the 17th and 18th centuries marked by a surge in philosophical and intellectual thought, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority, which influenced modern democratic principles and ideas of justice.

Community service

A court-ordered program that requires offenders to perform a certain number of hours of unpaid work for the community as part of their sentencing.

Furlough

A temporary release of an inmate from incarceration, usually under certain conditions, allowing them to return to the community for specific purposes such as work or family matters.

Home confinement

A legal sentence requiring an offender to remain at home during certain hours, usually as an alternative to incarceration.

Net widening

The process by which new sentencing options, such as diversion programs, lead to more individuals being subjected to supervision or control, rather than reducing the overall number of people incarcerated.

Liberal vs. Conservativ4

A political spectrum debate concerning the role of government in society, where liberals typically advocate for more government intervention in social issues and progressive reforms, while conservatives tend to support limited government and traditional values.

Democrat vs. Republican

The comparison between the two main political parties in the United States, where Democrats typically advocate for progressive policies and social change, while Republicans often support conservative values and limited government intervention.

Crime: occupational, organized, visible, political, victimless

Categories of crime that differentiate based on the nature and context of the offenses.

Hate crime

A criminal act motivated by bias or prejudice against a person's race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or other identifiable characteristics.

Dark figure of crime

Refers to the amount of crime that goes unreported or undetected, representing a gap in official crime statistics.

What are explanations for the drop in violent crime

Some explanations for the decline in violent crime include improvements in law enforcement practices, changes in drug markets, economic factors, and increased incarceration rates.

Classical vs. Positivist criminology

Classical criminology focuses on free will and rational choice, while positivist criminology emphasizes biological and environmental influences on criminal behavior.

Social process theories

Explain how social interactions and experiences influence individual behavior and criminality, emphasizing the role of societal factors.

Social conflict theories

Focus on the conflicts between different social groups, suggesting that crime arises from inequalities and competition for resources.

Victimology

The study of victims and their relationship to offenders, focusing on the impact of crime on victims and the societal response to victimization.

Federalism

A system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units, allowing both levels to govern specific areas.

Plea bargaining

A negotiation process in which a defendant agrees to plead guilty to a lesser charge in exchange for a more lenient sentence or other benefits.

Preliminary hearing vs. grand jury

A preliminary hearing is a process to determine whether there is enough evidence to proceed to trial, conducted before a judge, while a grand jury is a group of citizens that reviews evidence to decide whether formal charges should be brought against a defendant.

Indictment vs. information

An indictment is a formal charge or accusation of a serious crime, issued by a grand jury, whereas an information is a formal accusation made by a prosecutor without the grand jury's involvement.

Substantive vs. procedural law

Substantive law defines rights and duties while procedural law outlines the methods for enforcing those rights and duties in the legal system.

Criminal vs. civil law

Criminal law deals with offenses against the state or public, imposing penalties such as imprisonment, while civil law governs disputes between private parties, typically resulting in monetary compensation or other remedies.

Entrapment

Entrapment is a legal defense that argues a person was induced or persuaded by law enforcement to commit a crime they would not have otherwise committed.

Miranda warning – Due process revolutio

In the U.S. legal system requiring law enforcement to inform a suspect of their rights to remain silent and to have an attorney during interrogations.

Order maintenance law enforcement,

service policing

involves strategies that focus on maintaining public order and safety, often addressing minor offenses to prevent greater crime.

James Q. Wilson police structure (watchman vs. legalistic styles)

Wilson identified different policing styles, including watchman style focusing on order maintenance and community cooperation, and legalistic style emphasizing law enforcement and strict adherence to rules.

Subcultures and working personality

The distinctive values, norms, and behavioral patterns that emerge among police officers as a result of their experiences on the job, often leading to a unique mentality and approach to policing.

Preventative patrol

a proactive policing strategy that involves officers actively patrolling neighborhoods to deter crime before it occurs and enhance community safety.

Fourth amendment

Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures, requiring law enforcement to have probable cause.

Affidavit

A written statement confirmed by oath, used as evidence in court.

Stop and frisk exceptions- plain feel

A legal principle allowing police to seize items if they are felt during a lawful stop and frisk, provided the officer has a reasonable belief that the item is contraband or a weapon.

Public safety exception

Allows police to conduct a search without a warrant or probable cause if it is necessary to protect the public from imminent danger.

Exclusionary rule

A legal doctrine that prevents the use of evidence obtained through illegal searches and seizures in court.

Hot spots

Areas with high crime rates where police focus enforcement efforts.

Directed patrol

A policing strategy that focuses on certain areas or locations that have a high incidence of crime, aiming to deter criminal activity through increased police presence.

Aggressive patrol

A policing tactic that involves proactive measures, including stops and searches, in an effort to deter and reduce crime in high-crime areas.

Grass vs. meat eater

A term used to distinguish between two types of police officers; grass eaters are those who accept small favors and engage in minor corruption, while meat eaters actively seek opportunities for corruption and engage in more serious misconduct.