Ap Psych Unit 5 - Memory, Cognition, and Language

Cognition

Thinking and mental processes

Levels of processing Model of Memory

deeper forms of encoding lead to stronger recall

who developed levels of processing model of memory

craik and lockhart

Information Processing Model of memory

Our memory consists of our sensory memory, short-term memory, & long term memory stores. Informations enters our sensory memory, we must pay attention to bring short-term memory, and then encode it into long-term memory.

Parallel-processing model of memory (PDP)

the more interconnected our semantic network of facts is, the stronger our memory will be.

Transfer-appropriate model of memory

recall of information is stronger when method of retrieval matches encoding

Encoding

bringing in information from environment and processing it

Storage

holding information in memory over time

Retrieval

locating and pulling information into consciousness from memory

Attention

info most attended to will encoded best and therefore remembered better (requires effort)

The cocktail party effect

in a crowded environment, we can focus on one conversation while blocking out the rest; however, when your name (or something relevant to you) is said, your attention shifts

structural

encoding what the stimulus looks like

phonemic

encoding what the stimulus sounds like

semantic

encoding the meaning of the stimulus

elborative encoding

making connections between new info and old info

self-referent encoding

a form of elaborative encoding that involves making connections between new info and __yourself__

who developed information processing model of memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin or multi store model

Sensory register

brings in info through all 5 senses for less than one second (each sense has its own register)

Iconic memory

sensory memory of visual stimuli (less than 1/10 sec)

echoic memory

sensory memory of auditory stimuli

short term memory

info selectively attended to is sent here from sensory memory

information primarily retained through for STM

rehearsal/repetition

primary type of encoding for STM

acoustic

Capacity and Duration for STM

7 +/- 2 items, 20 sec

chunking

grouping items (= increases the amount of info we can recall)

short term memory as “working memory”

when we recall info from LTM, it is brought back to STM

Capacity & Duration for LTM

unlimited, forever

Primary type of encoding for LTM

semantic

Consolidation

solidifying a memory; making it permanent

Flashbulb memories

detailed, vivid memories of emotionally significant events (usually when we **first heard the info**)

Conceptual Hierarchy

classification/organization of knowledge in a hierarchy

Schemas

**mental representations** of people, objects, events, ideas, etc.

\*created by experience (visual, auditory, emotion, etc)

Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model

our memory consists of an interconnected network of facts/memories where new info is added to the "web"/"network". Therefore, **increased interconnectedness produces better memory.**

Semantic Networks

a “web” of interconnected facts

Retrieval cues

anything that aids in memory retrieval *(can be explicit or implicit)*

Mnemonic Devices

strategies for enhancing memory that involve unusual associations

Acrostics

phrases

Acronyms

a word formed by using first letters

Link method (story method)

forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.

Method of Loci

taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations. 

Overlearning

Continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it.  *= overcome the forgetting curve*

Context Dependent Learning

remember info best in the same/similar __physical location__ as where info was learned. 

State Dependent

remembering info. best in the same __physiological state__ as when we learned the info. 

Mood congruency

info processing/recall is facilitated if a person's __emotional state__ is similar to the tone of the info; or same emotional state

Distributed/Spaced practice

studying in small chunks

Massed practice

studying in large intervals

Serial Position Curve

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list & at the end of a list. "U shaped retention curve"

Primacy effect

Better recall of items at the __beginning__ of a list 

Recency effect

Better recall of items at the __end__ of a list 

Tip-of-the tongue phenomenon

retrieval of __incomplete__ information

Constructive memory

Using existing knowledge/__**schemas**__/experiences to **fill in the gaps** in info during encoding and retrieval. 

eyewitness memory person

Elizabeth Loftus

Misinformation effect

when memory is altered by misleading __postevent__ information

reality monitoring

The process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one's perceptions of __actual__ events) or internal sources (one's thoughts and imagination)

Source - monitoring

making attributions about the origins of memory (Who told me? Where did I read it?) *(error = mistake, amnesia = don't know)*

Destination memory

Recalling to whom one has told what

forgetting curve person

Ebbinghaus

forgetting curve

\*most forgetting happens within the first hour

\*after about 9 hours, memory is relatively constant

retention

The proportion of material retained (remembered)

recall

no cues

recognition

selection from an array of options

relearning (method of favings)

less time/fewer trials are needed to memorize/remember info after having forgotten

ineffective coding

you really didn’t forget …. you never encoded it in the first place

decay

gradual erosion of memory (fading; you don’t use it you lose it)

interference

“competition” with other similar information

retroactive interference

New (similar) info impairs recall of __**old**__ info

proactive interference

old info impairs learning/recall of __**new**__ (similar) info 

Transfer - Appropriate Processing Model

How well we remember info is based on how __encoding matches retrieval__

Encoding - specificity principle

The best retrieval cues are those that match the way the information is encoded

Motivated forgetting

pushing memories into the unconscious (psychodynamic approach)

Retrospective memory

remembering events from the **past** or previously learned information

Prospective memory

remembering to perform actions in the **future**

episodic memory

memories of specific events that happened **while you were present** (I remember when...)

semantic memory

memories of **factual information**; generalized knowledge

procedural memory

memories of **physical skills**

*(cerebellum & basal ganglia play a large role)*

Declarative/Explicit memory

factual information (semantic & episodic memories are included here)

*(hippocampus & frontal lobe largely responsible for formation)*

Nondeclarative/Implicit memory

actions, skills, classically conditioned responses, emotional responses (procedural memories fit here)

Long-term potential (LTP)

\-Increase in synaptic strength

\-Practice/reviewing strengthens synaptic connections to improve memory (less stimulation is required to release same amount of the neurotransmitter)

Retrograde amnesia

loss of memory __prior__ to onset of amnesia

Anterograde amnesia

loss of memory of events occurring __after__ the onset of amnesia

*(inability to form new memories)*

*(due to hippocampal damage)*

What structures in the brain are associated with memory

hippocampus, thalamus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, cerebellum & basal ganglia, association cortex

what neurotransmitters are associated with memory

acetylcholine, glutamate

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an **item** only in terms of its most common use; the inability to use **objects** in different ways

mental set

Persistence in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past. This is a barrier when it prevents you from seeing other ways of solving a problem.  

fixation

focusing on only one aspect of a problem; inability to see a problem from another perspective

unnecessary constraints

tendency to impose our own "rules" that are not part of the problem

Algorithm

a methodical, step-by-step process for trying __all possible__ solutions to a problem. (can be very time consuming; if a solution exists, you are guaranteed to find the solution)

Heuristics

a "rule of thumb" or "**mental shortcut**" used in problem solving or decision making. (much quicker, but may cause us to make errors or overlook the solution)

decomposition

Breaking down a problem into smaller parts

working backwards

Start at the end/start with solution

searching for analogies

Making a connection between the current problem & a problem you've already solved and then using a similar strategy to solve.

incubation

Setting the problem aside for a little while and coming back

to it later (can lead to insight or breaking of a mental set)

insight

a sudden realization to a solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while

theory of bounded rationality

The idea that our decision making capabilities are limited due to time constraints, available information, our own cognitive limitations (we can only weigh so many factors, emotions get in the way), etc. 

Attributes

factors to be considered in decision making

Utility

personal value of each attribute

availability heuristic

A **mental shortcut** in decision making based on how readily (quickly) **relevant instances come to mind** (based on headlines, recent experiences, etc.).

representative heuristic

A **mental shortcut** where someone makes a decision based on how something **fits their** ***schema*** **or** ***prototype*** of a concept.

*(basis for explaining stereotypes)*

prototype

best example of a category (icon for the schema; allows for quick comparison)

anchoring heuristic

tendency to **adjust** an initial estimate **only slightly** after being presented with **additional information;** tendency to base a judgement on an initial piece of information (whether it is accurate or not)

**First impressions are important*