AP PSYCH - Key Vocabulary

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's knowledge or abilities.

Independent Variable

The factor manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect.

Dependent Variable

The outcome measured in an experiment based on changes in the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Randomly allocating participants to experimental or control groups to reduce bias.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of a single individual or group.

Correlational Research

Type of research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables. Involves the use of scatterplots.

Meta-Analysis

Set of statistical techniques for combining data from independent studies to produce a single estimate of effect. Very objective and accurate.

Naturalistic Observation

Involves the systematic study of behavior in natural settings rather than a laboratory. Participants cannot know they are being watched.

Operational Definition

A precise explanation of how variables are measured in a study.

Confounding Variable

An extraneous factor that could influence results alongside the independent variable.

Normal Curve

A normal distribution - A symmetrical bell-shaped curve describing the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores to move closer to the average upon retesting.

Representative Sample

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the whole.

Random Sampling

Selecting participants in a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen.

Convenience Sampling

Choosing participants based on availability and ease of access.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the independent variable in an experiment.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the independent variable, used for comparison.

Placebo

A substance or treatment with no active effect used as a control in experiments.

Placebo Effect

Feeling as if in the experimental group while being in the control group.

Single-Blind Procedure

Participants are unaware of their group assignment but researchers know.

Double-Blind Procedure

Both researchers and participants are unaware of group assignments to avoid bias.

Experimenter Bias

Researchers' expectations influencing the outcome of a study.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of participants to respond in a way that is viewed favorably by others.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases as the other decreases.

Correlational Coefficient

A statistical measure (r) that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship.

Statistical Significance

How likely it is than an obtained result occurred by chance or if it truly represented the overall population.

Directionality Problem

In correlation research, uncertainty about which variable affects the other.

Third Variable Problem

The possibility that an outside variable is influencing both correlated variables.

Informed Consent

Participants' agreement to take part in a study after being informed of risks.

Confidentiality

Keeping participants' information private and secure.

Deception

Misleading participants about aspects of a study for valid research purposes.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the true purpose and results of a study after participation.

Nature

Genetic or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes.

Nurture

External factors that one experiences, such as family interactions or education.

Evolutionary Perspective

Explores how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success.

Eugenics

A controversial practice aimed at improving human genetics through selective breeding.

Central Nervous System

Includes the brain and the spinal cord and interacts with all processes in the body.

Peripheral Nervous System

Relays messages from the central nervous system to the rest of the body and includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

Autonomic Nervous System

Governs processes that are involuntary and includes the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.

Somatic Nervous System

Governs processes that are voluntary and enables sensations.

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information in the brain and nervous system.

Gilal Cells

Support cells that provide structural and metabolic support for neurons.

Reflex Arc

The neural pathway that controls automatic responses to stimuli.

All-or-Nothing Principle

A neuron either fires completely or not at all.

Depolarization

A change in a neuron's membrane potential, making it more positive.

Refractory Period

A brief period after firing when a neuron cannot fire again.

Resting Potential

Neuron is in a settled manner but has become aware of surroundings. Small charges are apparent.

Reuptake

Travelers on stand-by, neurotransmitters in synapse recycled for possible later use by previous (pre-synaptic neuron).

Absolute Refractory Period

After firing, no chance of a refire until regrouped or at proper voltage.

Relative Refractory Period

Earliest moment after firing when a neuron may fire again though not entirely regrouped or back to Resting State.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease where the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerves.

Myasthenia Gravis

A condition causing weakness in the voluntary muscles due to nerve signal issues.

Excitatory

Signals that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing.

Inhibitory

Signals that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing.

Dopamine

Plays a key role in pleasure, motivation, and reward, as well as in regulating movement. An undersupply can lead to Parkinson's Disease while an oversupply can lead to Schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Helps regulate mood, appetite, sleep, and emotional well-being. An undersupply can lead to depression while an oversupply can lead to OCD.

Norepinephrine

Involved in the body's stress response, affecting alertness, arousal, and the fight-or-flight reaction. An undersupply can lead to Bipolar Disorder while an oversupply can lead to high blood pressure.

Glutamate

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in learning and memory. An oversupply can lead to overstimulation of the brain. Connects with MSG.

GABA

Inhibits nerve activity in the brain, helping to calm and reduce anxiety. An undersupply can lead to insomnia and seizures while an oversupply can lead to sleep/eating disorders.

Endorphins

Act as natural painkillers and help to reduce stress and promote a feeling of well-being. An oversupply can lead to inadequate pain warnings while an undersupply leads to intense pain.

Substance P

Transmits pain signals and is involved in the body's response to injury. Abnormal levels can lead to Major Depressive Disorder and PTSD.

Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle movement, memory, and learning. An undersupply can lead to paralysis while an oversupply can lead to violent muscle contractions.

Adrenaline

A hormone that prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses.

Leptin

A hormone that regulates hunger and energy balance.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates appetite.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep cycles.

Oxytocin

A hormone associated with bonding and social connections.

Agonists

Mimic or enhance a neurotransmitter's effects, encouraging neural firing. Examples include opioids.

Antagonists

Block a neurotransmitters effects, discouraging neural firing. Examples include caffeine.

Reuptake Inhibitors

Medications that block neurotransmitter reabsorption to increase their effects.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase nervous system activity.

Depressants

Drugs that slow down nervous system activity.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception and reality.

Opioids

Pain-relieving drugs that also produce euphoria.

Tolerance

The need for increased amounts of a substance to achieve the same effect.

Addiction

Compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences.

Medulla

The lowest part of the brainstem and connects the spinal cord to the brain. Regulates key body functions such as breathing/heartrate & blood pressure.

Reticular Activating System

Control some voluntary movement, eye movement, and some types of learning, cognition, and emotion.

Cerebellum

Controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning.

Cerebral Cortex

Divided into two hemispheres and includes the limbic system (thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, amygdala), corpus callosum, and the lobes of the cortex.

Limbic System

Brain structures involved in emotions and memory.

Thalamus

Switchboard of the Brain, not part of limbic system. It diagnoses all of our senses and sends to appropriate lobes for processing. Connects with imagination & abstract thought.

Hypothalamus

An area of the brain that produces hormones that control: Body temperature. Heart rate. Hunger. Mood.

Pituitary Gland

Located on the underside of the brain, below limbic system. Often works with the Hypothalamus. Specifically affects thirst, sexual behavior, paternal/maternal behavior.

Hippocampus

Warehouse for the transfer of short term/working memory into long term memory. Transfers learning into stored memory.

Amygdala

A small, almond-shaped structure in the brain that plays a key role in processing emotions, motivation, and memory

Corpus Callosum

Nerve fibers connecting the brain's two hemispheres.

Occipital Lobes

Control visual information processing and are located in the rear of the brain.

Temporal Lobes

Control auditory and linguistic processing and are located on the sides of the brain.

Parietal Lobes

Brain region involved in sensory processing and spatial awareness.

Frontal Lobes

Control linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning, especially in the prefrontal cortex.

Split Brain Research

Studies on individuals with a severed corpus callosum to understand brain specialization.

Broca's Area

A brain region crucial for speech production.

Wernicke's Area

Area of the brain that processes language. Involved in transforming visual impressions of letters into mental representations of speech sounds.

Cortex Specialization

The idea that different brain areas have specialized functions.