AP Lang Glossary Terms

Allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

Alliteration

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells seashells"). Although the term is not used frequently in the multiple-choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

Allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.

Ambiguity

The multiple meanings, intentional or unintentional, in a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

Analogy

A comparison between two different things to explain the unfamiliar by associating it with something more familiar, making writing vivid or engaging.

Anecdote

A short narrative detailing an interesting episode or event, often referring to an incident in a person's life.

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun, which can be asked for in complex sentences.

Aphorism

A concise statement expressing a general truth or moral principle, often attributed to known authors.

Apostrophe

A figure of speech directly addressing an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction.

Atmosphere

The emotional mood created by a literary work, influenced by setting and objects described, often foreshadowing events or creating a mood.

Clause

A grammatical unit containing a subject and a verb, with independent clauses expressing complete thoughts and dependent clauses needing support.

Colloquial/Colloquialism

The use of slang or informal language in speech or writing to give a conversational tone.

Coherence

The arrangement of parts in a composition to ensure immediate clarity and intelligibility of the whole.

Conceit

A fanciful expression, often in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between dissimilar objects.

Connotation

The nonliteral, associated meaning of a word, involving ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

Denotation

The strict, literal definition of a word without emotional or attitudinal connotations.

Diction

Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.

Didactic

Works aimed at teaching or instructing, especially moral or ethical principles.

Euphemism

A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for an unpleasant word or concept.

Exposition

The type of composition that explains something, or in drama, the introductory material setting the tone and introducing characters and conflict.

Extended metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

Figurative language

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

Figure of speech

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

Generic conventions

This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

Hyperbole

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony.

Imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. However, one image can represent more than one thing on a broader and deeper level. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection (It is the highest flower on the Great Chain of Being). An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP exam, pay attention to How an author creates imagery and the effect of this imagery.

Inference/infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple-choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and is wrong. As we have seen in the multiple-choice selections that we have been trying, you must be careful to note the connotation -- negative or positive -of the choices.

Invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

Irony/ironic

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. The difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language; (1) In verbal irony, the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) true meaning. (2) In situational irony, events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen. (3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create poignancy or humor.

Loose sentence

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. Generally loose sentences create loose style.

Metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

Metonymy

A figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, “the suits will be there,” meaning the executives will be there.

Mood

This term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The indicative mood is used only for factual sentences. For example, "Joe eats too quickly.” The subjunctive mood is used to express conditions contrary to fact. For example, "If I were you, I'd get another job." The imperative mood is used for commands. For example, "Shut the door!" The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

Narrative

The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

Onomatopoeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

Oxymoron

From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech where the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness.” This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect which the author achieves with this term.

Paradox

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. Macbeth.

Parallelism

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. A famous example of parallelism begins with Charles Dickens's novel 4 Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity" The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

Parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As a comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics to illuminate weaknesses in the original. Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly-written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually, an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and do not require knowledge of the original.

Pedantic

Words, phrases, or tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

Periodic sentence

Sentence presenting central meaning at the end, preceded by a phrase that cannot stand alone.

Personification

Describing concepts, animals, or objects with human attributes or emotions.

Point of view

Perspective from which a story is told, including first-person and third-person narrators.

Prose

Fiction and nonfiction where the printer determines line length.

Repetition

Duplication of any element of language, such as sound, word, or phrase.

Rhetoric

From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

Rhetorical modes

Variety and conventions of major kinds of writing like exposition and argumentation.

Sarcasm

Bitter, caustic language meant to ridicule or hurt.

Satire

Targets human vices or social institutions for reform or ridicule.

Style

consideration of style is meant to

1. provide an evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other lit. devices

2. classify authors to a group and compare an author to similar authors; reflects/ defines a historical period or a literary movement.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another. style -- The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a writer emulating that author's style). Compare, for example, Jonathan Swift to George Orwell or William Faulkner to Ernest Hemingway. We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental or realist movement.

Subordinate clause

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause, sometimes called an independent clause, to complete its meaning. Easily recognized keywords and phrases usually begin these clauses--for example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how, and that.

Syllogism

A deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second, “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion.

Symbol/symbolism

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually, a symbol is something concrete--such as an object, action, character, or scene--that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols in three categories: (1) Natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to represent ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) Conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as skull and crossbones for pirates or the scales of justice for lawyers). (3) Literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are generally recognized. However, a work's symbols may be more complicated as is the whale in Moby Dick and the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.

Syntax

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple-choice section, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

Subordinate clause

Contains a subject and verb but cannot stand alone.

Theme

Central idea or message of a work offering insight into life.

Thesis

Sentence expressing the author's opinion, purpose, or position in expository writing.

Tone

Author's attitude toward the material, audience, or both.

Transition

Word or phrase linking different ideas, signaling a shift.

Trope

an artful variation from expected modes of expression of thoughts and ideas., a figure of speech involving a “turn” or change of sense—use of the word in a sense other than its proper or literal one. Common types of tropes include metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy, personification, hyperbole, litotes, irony, oxymoron, onomatopoeia, etc.

Understatement

Ironic minimizing of fact, presenting something as less significant.

Undertone

an attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface, for example, a work may have threatening undertones. William Blake's "The Chimney Sweeper" from the Songs of Innocence has a grim undertone.

Unreliable narrator

Untrustworthy or naive commentator on events and characters in a story.

Wit

In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, with originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally (in the early seventeenth century), it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.