AP Lang Glossary Terms

allegory -- The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent

an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an

author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The

allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human

existence.

alliteration --The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or

more neighboring words (as in "she sells seashells"). Although the term is not used

frequently in the multiple-choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay

passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound,

and/or echo the sense of the passage.

allusion -- A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly

known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical,

literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work

may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.

ambiguity --The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word,

phrase, sentence, or passage.

analogy -- A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship

between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or

pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing

more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

anecdote -- A short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. The

the term most frequently refers to an incident in the life of a person.

antecedent -- The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language

exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex

sentence or in a group of sentences.

aphorism ~~ A terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or a

moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to

be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

apostrophe — A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that

cannot answer.

atmosphere -- The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work,

established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are

described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the

atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

clause -- A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or

main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A

dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be

accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the

question of what or why the author subordinates one element to the other. You should

also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

colloquial/colloquialism -- The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not

generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational,

familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialect.

coherence -- A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so

that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible. Words, phrases,

clauses within the sentence; and sentences, paragraphs, and chapters in larger pieces of

writing are the units that, by their progressive and logical arrangement, make for

coherence.

conceit - A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or

surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. It displays intellectual

cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

connotation -- The nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested

meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

denotation -- The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.

diction -- Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with

regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be

able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and

understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction,

combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.

didactic -- From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical

principles.

euphemism -- From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or

less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism

may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or

ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than "corpse" is an example of

euphemism.

exposition -- In essays, one of the for chief types of composition, the others being

argumentation, description, and narration. The purpose of exposition is to explain

something. In drama, the exposition is the introductory material, which creates the tone,

gives the setting, and introduces the characters and conflict.

extended metaphor -- A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or

throughout a work.

figurative language -- Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning

and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

figure of speech ~~ A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare

dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor,

metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

generic conventions -- This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions

help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic

writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to

distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

genre -- The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of

literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these

broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For

example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction

(essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic,

narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc.

On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following

genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political,

scientific, and nature writing.

hyperbole -- A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often,

hyperbole produces irony.

imagery -- The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion,

or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five

senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. However, one image can represent more than one thing on a broader and deeper level. For example, a

rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks

and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection (It is the highest flower on the Great

Chain of Being). An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing

other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply

to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP exam, pay attention to How an author

creates imagery and the effect of this imagery.

inference/to infer -- To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple-choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the

most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is

implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is

directly stated, it is not inferred and is wrong. As we have seen in the multiple-choice

selections that we have been trying, you must be careful to note the connotation --

negative or positive -of the choices.

invective -- an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive

language.

irony/ironic -- The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant.

The difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. In general, there are

three major types of irony used in language; (1) In verbal irony, the words literally state

the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) true meaning. (2) In situational irony, events

turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought

to happen is not what does happen. (3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to

a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other

characters in the work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create

poignancy or humor.

loose sentence -- A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes

first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period

were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete

sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and

conversational. Generally loose sentences create loose style.

metaphor -- A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or

the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language

makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

metonymy ~ A figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that

of another closely associated with it. For example, “the suits will be there,” meaning the

executives will be there.

mood — This term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first

meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The indicative mood is used only for factual sentences. For example, "Joe eats too quickly.” The subjunctive mood is used to express conditions contrary to fact. For example, "If I were you, I'd get another job." The imperative mood is used for commands. For example, "Shut the door!" The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

narrative -- The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

onomatopoeia -- A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of

words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and

murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

oxymoron -- From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech

where the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple

examples include “jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness.” This term does not usually

appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an

essay. Take note of the effect which the author achieves with this term.

paradox -- A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common

sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. Macbeth.

parallelism -- Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term

comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or

rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural

similarity. This can involve but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element

such as a preposition or verbal phrase. A famous example of parallelism begins with Charles

Dickens's novel 4 Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times,

it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was

the epoch of incredulity" The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act

as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or

simply provide a musical rhythm.

parody -- A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific

aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As a comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates

distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and

borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics to illuminate weaknesses in the original.

Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly-written parody

offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually, an audience must grasp literary allusion and

understand the work being parodied to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work.

Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and do not require

knowledge of the original.

pedantic -- An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

periodic sentence -- A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the

end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone.

For example: "Ecstatic with my AP score, | let out a loud, joyful shout.!" The effect of periodic sentences adds emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger

sentence than the loose sentence.

personification -- A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts,

animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions.

Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

point of view -- In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two

general divisions of point of view and many subdivisions within those. (1) the first-

person narrator tells the story with the first-person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the

story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a participant (character in a secondary role),

or an observer (a character who merely watches the action). (2) the third person

narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and "it." There

are two main subdivisions to be aware of: omniscient and limited omniscient. In the

"third person omniscient” point of view, the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents

the thoughts and actions of any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal

what each character feels and thinks at any given moment. The “third person limited

omniscient" point of view, as its name implies, presents the feelings and thoughts of only

one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters. This definition

applies in questions in the multiple-choice section. However, on the essay portion of the

exam, the "point of view” carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze

the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's

attitude. [For a thorough discussion of point of view, see Story and Structure, the text

used by the seniors. Jn fact, you would be wise to get a copy of it from the thrift store

because the introductory sections are wonderful discussions of howl literature works].

prose -- One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction,

including all its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry,

the poet determines the length of the line.

repetition --The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language,

such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

rhetoric --From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the

art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

rhetorical modes -- This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the

purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: exposition, argumentation and persuasion, description.

sarcasm ~- From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic

language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a

device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic, that is, intended to ridicule. When well

done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it's simply cruel.

satire -- A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and

conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether the work aims to reform

human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing.

It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit,

parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are

varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought-provoking and insightful about the human condition.

semantics -- The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical

and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

style -- The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the

choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other

literary devices. Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize

works by the same author (or a writer emulating that author's style). Compare, for

example, Jonathan Swift to George Orwell or William Faulkner to Ernest Hemingway.

We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how

appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct,

rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples.

(2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors.

By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style

reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian

period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental or realist movement.

subordinate clause -- Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a

verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause,

the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also

called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause, sometimes

called an independent clause, to complete its meaning. Easily recognized keywords and

phrases usually begin these clauses--for example: although, because, unless, if, even

though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how, and that.

syllogism — A deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one

called “major” and the second, “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion.

symbol/symbolism -- Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something

else. Usually, a symbol is something concrete--such as an object, action, character, or

scene--that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols in three categories: (1) Natural

symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to represent ideas commonly associated

with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree

symbolizing knowledge). (2) Conventional symbols are those that have been invested

with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national

symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as skull and crossbones for

pirates or the scales of justice for lawyers). (3) Literary symbols are sometimes also

conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are generally

recognized. However, a work's symbols may be more complicated as is the whale in

Moby Dick and the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine what

abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing

that abstraction.

syntax -- The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the

groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple-choice

section, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In

the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

theme -- The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually,

theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated,

especially in expository or argumentative writing.

thesis -- In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences

that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository

writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a

writer has proved the thesis.

tone -- Similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the

audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written

language. Considering how awork would sound if it were read aloud can help in

identifying an author's tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious,

businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber.

transition -- A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not

exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift

from one idea to another. A few commonly used transitional words or phrases are

furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, and

on the contrary. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition. We will

discuss these methods later.

trope—an artful variation from expected modes of expression of thoughts and ideas., a

figure of speech involving a “turn” or change of sense—use of the word in a sense

other than its proper or literal one. Common types of tropes include metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy, personification, hyperbole, litotes, irony, oxymoron,

onomatopoeia, etc.

understatement -- The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as

less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic.

Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.

undertone -- an attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a

cheery surface, for example, a work may have threatening undertones. William Blake's

"The Chimney Sweeper" from the Songs of Innocence has a grim undertone.

unreliable narrator—An untrustworthy or naive commentator on events and characters

in a story. Huck Finn is one of American literature’s most famous of this type.

wit -- In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A

witty statement is humorous while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating

ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed

statement. Historically, with originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to

include speed of understanding, and finally (in the early seventeenth century), it grew to

mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an

answer that demanded the same quick perception.