Learning

Learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence.

Cognitive Learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR).

Conditioned Response (CR)

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage—when we link a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.)

Extinction

In classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response—when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the weakening of a response when it is no longer reinforced.)

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

Generalization

(Also called stimulus generalization.) In classical conditioning, the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus (CS). (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more probable if followed by a reinforcer or less probable if followed by a punisher.

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Operant Chamber

In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer toward a desired behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus, such as food. A positive reinforcer is anything that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus, such as an electric shock. A negative reinforcer is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Primary Reinforcer

An event that is innately reinforcing, often by satisfying a biological need.

Conditioned Reinforcer

An event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer. (Also known as secondary reinforcer.)

Reinforcement Schedule

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Positive Punishment

An event that decreases a behavior by administering a negative stimulus.

Negative Punishment

An event that decreases a behavior by removing a rewarding stimulus.

behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Cognitive Map

A mental image of the layout of one's environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; a neural basis for imitation and observational learning.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Antisocial Behavior

Negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior.