(Topic 1) The Rise and Fall of the Weimar Repbublic:

The Collapse of Weimar Germany:

• WWI

October 1918: Germany was losing the war (after the USA joined on side with Entente powers). The Kaiser requested the Prince to form a government (after war economy saw a great decline). The Prince then asked President for Armistace.

• Constitutional Reform → Parliamentary Monarchy / November Revolution

19th October: Kiel Mutiny (German Navy backed down as felt threatened/definite they would lose), causing a revolution

9th November: Kaiser abdicates → SPD leader, Ebert, takes over

10th November: Ebert-Groaner Pact: aimed to secure the support of military in Ebert’s new gov in the aftermath of the German Revolution

11th November: Armistice agreed. Gov ministers named ‘November Criminals’ as civilians were lied to, the loss & retreat from war came as a great shock

15th November: Stinnes-Legien Agreement- established key principles of German social partnership. Recognised trade unions, introduced 8 hour working day & guaranteed returning soldiers a job etc…

Threat of Communism:

Russian revolution (1917-1923) caused an uprise in the amount of communists/people who wanted a left wing government

• SPD upheld democracy, wanting elections for a National Assembly

• The population was neither right nor left. Many felt having a set constitution would be of benefit, many felt stabbed in the back by the new politicians. Prominent threats and division

• Communists (right wing) wanted a Soviet led Government

• Independent Socialists (USPD) demanded for a radical social & economic reform- but received little support.

Establishing the Weimar Constitution:

National Assembly 1919…

• 1919 elections: 80% of Germans voted

• SPD: 165 seats (had a plurality)

• German National Peoples Party (DNVP): 19 seats (low % of right wing supporters)

= became a Parliamentary Democracy → assembly drew up a new constitution

• Sovereignty based on the people

• Remained a Federal state (had power over religion, schools etc)

• Central Gov controlled tax, foreign policy

• Proportional representation & men/women over 20 could vote

• Reichstag Deputies elected every 4 years

• Reichstag initiated legislation (Chancellor&Ministers had to coerce with Parliament)

• Article 48- allowed President to bypass Reichstag (legislation) in an occurrence of national emergency

(Weimar Constitution) Strengths & Weaknesses:

Strengths:

• Democratic- guaranteed civil liberties

• Built on Germany’s traditional practises

• Proportional representation- allowed smaller parties into Parliament (fairer) which allowed civilians to have a say in the government

• Article 48- limits President powers but also allows for faster formation of legislation in an emergency

Weaknesses:

• PR system- smaller parties in gov meant it was harder for a party to achieve a majority → Coalition Governments

• Coalitions- not all parties got on, agreed with one another etc. Hard to communicate/cooperate in government

• Little clarity on who held the majority of power- Reichstag? President? Chancellor?

• ‘Stab in the Back Myth’- people were in fear/didn’t trust the new government. Felt betrayed. 20% didn’t vote in Jan 1919

The Treaty of Versailles:

Allied leaders met to make peace with Central powers

• France determined to punish Germany

• League of Nations established

Terms of the Treaty:

• Territorial losses- Alsace Lorraine & the Saar (coal sources) to France, Polish corridor & Prussia to Poland, Rhineland became demilitarised (&occupied by France), Danzig would become a free city under the LofN, other German occupied colonies given to Britain&France as mandates. 10% of German speaking people now outside Germany.

• Military terms- limited to 100,000 soldiers, no tanks/aircraft/subs, 5 battleships. Left Germany helpless in defence. Caused loss of jobs etc

• War Guilt- Article 231, Germany was held fully accountable for war. Had to pay reparations (132billion marks) , could pay in raw materials etc. Weakened economy further

• Reaction of the people- most felt it was unfair/too harsh. Germany were already suffering from inflation. ‘Stab in the Back Myth’/November Criminals, many were anti-imperial/anti-weimar which led to a rise in extremism.

Overall viewed as a ‘Diktat” = dictated peace

Economic Crisis:

Reparations:

• 1921: Allies increased reparations to 18billion marks and demanded for 2billion a year. The currency was weakened but the following year, they refused to lower payments

Occupation of the Ruhr (1923):

• Failure to pay→France&Belgium responded by invading/occupying the Ruhr (resources for coal, iron etc).

• Armies occupied factories & seized raw materials to make up the worth of reparations.

• Passive resistance: Gov ordered a strike but had to find a way to pay workers for lost revenue (adding increased expenditure)

Hyperinflation:

• Overprinting of money→the mark essentially became worthless whilst prices of goods were increasing

• Savings lost, loans for wounded/pensions weren’t considerable, trading decreased, servere declination of standards of living (1923: 233billion marks for a loaf of bread)

• Foreign exchange rate was good, debts were wiped out

Government Response to the Economic Crisis:

Chancellor- Gustav Stresemann

• Called off strikes

• Gov spending cuts (eg 700,000 workers sacked)

• New Currency (worked with Schact)- Rentenmark → Wages & standards of living rose

• 1924: The Dawes Plan- received international loans

• 1925: Locarno Treaties- Germany respected the borders

• 1926: joined the League of Nations- showed acceptance of the treaty

• 1928: Kellogg-Briand Pact- made of 62 countries, agreement to settle disputes peacefully rather than with violence

• 1929: The Young Plan- annual payments reduced to 1million a year (total of 6.6billion to 2billion & payment over 59 years)

(Opposition to the Government) Political Extremism:

The Spartacist Uprising (January 1919):

• Communist political group took advantage of political protest in Berlin to attempt a communist revolution. Led by Karl Liebknect & Rosa Luxembourg.

• Ebert ordered Freikorps (ex army who refused to give up their weapons) to crush rebellion and had the leaders killed.

• Communist street violence continued in outbursts over Germany & contributed to instability → people began to look for solutions to democracy & extremists (eg right wing)

Kapp Putsch (March 1920):

• Group of right wing politicians & Freikorps tried to seize control of the gov → Ebert’s gov fled and called for a strike. Army refused to fight against ex-soldiers.

• The strike and lack of support = failure. Ring leaders were given short sentences

White Terror (1919-22):

• Anti-Weimar paramilitary groups carried out a wave of political assassinations and extreme violence (A total of 376 murders took place during 1919-22)

= Shows a lack of support for democracy → vote had fallen by 45% in the 1920 elections

(Opposition to Government) Political Extremism:

Origins of the NSDAP:

• German Workers Party (DAP) founded by Dexter post WWI → renamed to National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP)

Nazi Ideology:

• 25 Point Programme (1920): lay out Nazi aspirations → eg German nationalism (Lebensraum), Racial ideology (Aryan race), Anti-Semitism, Social Darwinism etc

• 1921: Hitler becomes leader of the party

The Munich Putsch (1923):

• Hitler worked with Ernst Rohm to develop the SA (paramilitary), alongside a group of ex-military & General Ludendorff

• 8th Nov: interrupted a meeting, announcing a national revolution- holding politicians captive

• Escapees reported them to the Bavarian police which put a stop to the march. Hitler fled, but was captured 2 days later and sentenced for 5 years

• He served 9 months (due to manipulation of judges/police) and wrote ‘Mein Kampf’ which outlined his ideology

(Policies for recovery 1924-29) Political:

Positive Factors:

• Grand Coalition (1928): secure, 76% were pro-Weimar (no assassinations or putsch’)

• Support for Nazis: 2.6% in 1928

• Far right coalition failed to get support for an ‘anti-Young Plan’ post

• Hindenburg (appointed 1925) supported constitution & appointed SPD leader Müller as chancellor in 1928

Negative Factors:

• Grand Coalition: many parties had to co-operate (it was hard to agree on foreign policy)→7 govs between 1925-1929

• Extremist support: reduced but still high (KPD- 10% in 1928)

• Hindenburg was obstructive to working with the SPD pre-1926 and insisted for DNVP be included in the gov

(Policies for recovery 1924-29) Economical:

Positive Factors: (with loans from USA)

• Production was back to pre-war %

• National income=higher → wages on the rise every year (inflation=relatively low, improving)

• Chemical companies dominated market (IG Farben)- helped towards industrial recovery & economic growth

• Exports up by 40%

• Unemployment=low → improved standard of living

Negative Factors:

• Slow agriculture (in recession from 1927- when stock market began to decline)

• Dependent on loans

• Unemployment still didn’t fall below 1.3million

• Tension between employers/employees (increase of working day etc)

(Social&Cultural attitudes/policies) Women:

Position of Women:

• 1918: given right to vote (turnout=90%), some given positions in Reichstag

• Article 109: women had equal rights (eg marriage=an equal partnership) And women should be allowed to enter legal professions → BUT did not change legal status as Parliament was split → Decrease in birth rates & Increase in divorce rates

• Post WWI: jobs given back to returning soldiers- creation of “White Blouse” jobs (women payed 33% less than men). Single women expected in workforce until married (numbers very small)

• “New Women:” went out unaccompanied, wore revealing clothes, drank & smoked publicly → frowned upon by traditionalists that they weren’t settling down

Women during the Great Depression:

• Unemployment rose as a whole, but were women were cheaper to employ than men

• 1932: women unemployed- 33% V men 46%

• May 1932: Bruning passed legislation for the dismissal of married women in government services (if their husbands were still earning)- created space in the workforce

(Social&Cultural attitudes/policies) Ethnic Minorities:

Jews:

• Formed >1% of population in 1918, even less in 1932 (falling birth rate) → ongoing perception of greed

• Made significant contributions to art, literature etc & held positions in gov- Rathenau as foreign minister but assassinated in 1922 by right wings (murder shows growing intolerance) , excluded from judiciary positions

• Article 113: equal rights (preservation of identity)

• Most lived in poverty and racial prejudices still present (especially by conservative elites, landowners etc). Blamed for loss of war & TofV

Gypsies:

• Despite A113 were discriminated because they moved around, didn’t pay tax , didn’t contribute to the workforce

• No federal laws, but some Länders tried to enforce work

• 1927: had to carry identity cards

Black people:

• Army from French occupations (Ruhr) had many black soldiers who stayed, married & had children of mixed race → were denounced as ‘bringing shame’ on Germany

Poles:

• Hostility towards Poles; they had been with allied forces during the war (‘caused’ Germany’s loss)

(Social&Cultural attitudes/policies) Education:

• Moral purpose: to encourage students of ‘civil responsibilities’ and building good relations post war

• 1920 School Law: provided equal access to eduction regardless of wealth. Free until the age of 14 → not completely achieved, private confession schools didn’t apply law (students payed)

• System of introspections introduced, moves towards increasing religious education (split arguments between North & South Landers)

• Steiner Schools: experimented with abandoning traditional schooling (rid of grading, corporal punishments)

• 1927: moved towards the Confessional Church/Secular Schools (no religion)

• Attempts to introduce Federal Law Schools but fell through due to Gov indecision

(Social&Cultural attitudes/policies) Culture:

Position of homosexuals:

• Berlin- gay culture tolerated, despite homosexuality being illegal (gay bars & publications from early 1920s)

Cultural Experimentation:

• Increase of liberal/tolerant atmosphere- contributed to positive perception of Weimar gov

• Artwork: reflected WWI & satirised aspects of society

• Bauhaus movement: modern architecture

• Music: American jazz very popular

• Literature: increased as censorship (from WWI) slackened → people heard about the front line & soldiers experiences

• Cinema: leading industry in expressionist work (eg Metropolis 1927)

• “New Objectivity:” use of new mediums (eg film, theatre, photography)

Impact of the Great Depression 1929-32:

Wall Street Crash (1929) saw crash of US Stock Markets = worldwide depression → Germany’s loans recalled

• National income shrunk by 39%

• Unemployment = 6million at peak

• Industrial production: declined by 40% (50,000 businesses bankrupt)

• 5 major banks closed → wages decreased by 14%

• Homelessness, crime & poverty increased

Actions to GD: Gov did “too little, too late” → NSDAP vote now 18.3% (from 2.6%)

Responses to the Great Depression (1929-32):

• Müllers grand coalition collapsed, replaced with one led by Bruning → people were losing more faith in gov and turning to extremism (shown by increase of NSDAP votes)

• Bruning: lacked support of Reichstag when suggesting wage cuts & higher taxes → relied on Hindenburg to use A48 (deepened depression/poverty). Began creation of Public Work Schemes

• Known as the ‘Hunger Chancellor’ as main focus was ending reparations → achived in 1931: ‘Hoover Moratorium’ - one year suspension of reparation obligations

• Von Papen appointed (1932)- Public Work Schemes extended over

• Von Schleicher appointed (1932)- had opportunities to create employment but failed to put into place before rise of Nazis

(Collapse of Democracy 1930-33) Political Impact of the Great Depression:

• Mullers Grand Coalition collapsed by 1930- parties disagreed over cutting unemployment benefits (with unemployment on the rise)

• Brunings gov failed to get support, relied on Hindenburg & A48 emergency powers

• Hindenburg (wanted to retire) dissolved the gov & called for new elections

• Von Papen lost a vote of confidence (1932), while Schleichers gov only lasted 2 months

• Papen also relied on A48 - used it to seize control of the Länder in Prussia

• Politicians didn’t take effective action- Bruning began in 1932 but people had already lost faith in him & the gov

= Democratic norms began to crumble, adding to the air of instability → political violence in streets (eg 1932 elections saw 461 riots in Prussia- the SA largely responsible for the deaths)

(Collapse of Democracy 1930-33) Growth of Nazi Support:

The Depression saw an increase in extremist voters…

• NSDAP membership: grew to 2million

• SA: 70,000→170,000 in one year

• 1928: 12 seats 1930: 107 seats 1932: 230 seats (achieving majority)

The Nazi’s were able to capitalise the Depression & Political Crisis to gain support

Growth of Nazi Support:

Demographic of voters/members:

• Young, impressionable males (party didn’t encourage active female involvement)

• Protestants more likely to vote than Catholics

• Working class (31% of membership), self-employed, middle class

Impact of Propaganda:

• Tailored messages to attract different audiences (eg bread&work to the working class)

• Leaflets, posters, rallies, speeches, film, radio

• Promoted an anti-Weimar attitude- that they were the ‘November Criminals’

• Saw an increase of support overall (even in less targeted areas)

Hitler’s Appeal:

• ‘Hitler Myth’ & ‘Hitler over Germany’ campaigns

• J. Goebbels cultivated an image of Hitler: strong, militaristic, family man, a credible political leader

• Hitler was known for well made speeches (a tactician)

(Collapse of Democracy 1930-33) Hitler’s appointment to power:

• Hindenburg was pressured by industrialists (eg Schact), urging for Hitler to be appointed as chancellor in 1932. Many Conservative Elites also contributed the Nazi funds

• Von Papen schemed against Schleicher: persuasion of Hindenburg to make him Vice-Chancellor, Hitler as Chancellor & limit the Nazis to 2 members within the cabinet (a hope to ‘control’ Hitler)→ Papen wanted to use Hitler’s popularity to give legitimacy to the government (which he lacked in 1932)

• Fear of a Communist Revolution still present (KPD vote in 1928: 3.2million → 1933: 5.9million)

• Fear of the SA’s violence & involvement in the voting process

= Hitler was appointed as Chancellor in January 1933, after Schleicher failed to attain popularity/working with trade unions