AP PSYCH UNIT 7 - Personality & MESH

Personality

A person’s unique set of consistent behavioral traits.

Personality Traits

Durable dispositions behave in a particular way in a variety of situations.

Factor Analysis

Using statistical techniques to identify clusters of related info.

The Five-Factor Model (“Big 5”)

1. Openness\~
2. Consciousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism

Openness

High: Receptive to new ideas, creative, & broad in interests.

Low: Conventional, practical, narrow in interests.

Consciousness

High: responsible, organized, disciplined, achievement-oriented

Low: Careless, disorganized, impulsive, lazy

Extraversion

High: outgoing, fun-loving, assertive, talkative

Low: shy, serious, passive, quiet

Agreeableness

High: Warm, trusting, helpful, easygoing

Low: cold, suspicious, uncooperative, argumentative

Neuroticism

High: Moody, Anxious, Restless, Excitable

Low: Calm, Even-tempered

**Who made Central & Secondary Traits in the Trait Theory?**

**Allport**

Central Traits

approx. __7 main__ personality traits that are apparent to others & __consistent__ across __diverse__ situations.

Secondary Traits

__unlimited__ number of traits that only show up in __specific__ situations.

**Who made Source & Surface Traits in the** __**16- Factor**__ **Trait Theory?**

Cattell

Source Traits

__16 underlying__ personality traits that __influence surface behavior__.

Surface Traits

The combination of source traits that make up our personality. These are behaviors that __others see__ & are __unlimited__.

Introverted/Extraverted

\*Introverted: Quiet, Reflective, Reserved, etc…

\*Extraverted: Active, Sociable, Outgoing, etc…

Neuroticism (Emotionally)

\*High in Neuroticism: Moody, Anxious, Restless, Excitable, etc... 

\*Low in Neuroticism: Calm, Even-tempered, etc…

Psychoticism

\*High in Psychoticism: Cruel, hostile, aggressive, impulsive, self-centered.

\*Low in Psychoticism: Warm, caring, & concerned for others.

Evaluating Trait Theories (Advantages)

Advantage: Gives us __terminology__ to __describe__ the behavior.

Evaluating Trait Theories (Disadvantages)

\*Disadvantages: Doesn't explain behavior; Doesn't create a unique description for everyone (like a horoscope) (Barnum Effect\*).

What are the 3 Structures of Personality/Mind? (Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory)

1. Id
2. Ego
3. Superego

Id (instincts)

\*Primitive, instinctual component of our personality.

\*Fulfills our unconscious urges *(doesn’t care about consequences)*

\*Operates on the __pleasure principle__ (instant gratification)

\*Includes: __Eros__ (life instinct); __Thanatos__ (death instinct); __Libido__(sexual energy).

Ego (reality)

\*Operates on the __reality principle__ (delay gratification until id’s urges can be satisfied in a socially acceptable way).

Superego (morality)

\*__moral__ component of personality (values, conscience, right v wrong)

\*__learned__ from parents & society.

Defense Mechanism

__unconscious reactions__ that __protect__ a person from __unpleasant__ __emotions__ such as anxiety and guilt resulting from __unconscious__ __conflict__.

Denial *(defense mechanism)*

__Refusal__ to __recognize__ or __acknowledge__ a threatening situation.



*ex~ Ben is failing his classes & denies struggling academically.*

Repression *(defense mechanism)*

“__pushing__” threatening or conflicting events or situations __OUT of conscious__ memory.

*ex~ Elise was injured in a fire as a child, but can’t remember the fire at all.*

Rationalization *(defense mechanism)*

Making up __acceptable excuses__ for __unacceptable behavior__.



*ex~ “If I don’t have breakfast, I can have that piece of cake later on w/o hurting my diet.”*

Projection *(defense mechanism)*

Placing __one’s unacceptable thoughts__ onto others, as if the thoughts __belong to them__ & __not__ to __oneself__.

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*ex~ Keisha is attracted to her friend’s boyfriend but denies this & believes the boyfriend is attracted to her.*

Reaction Formation *(defense mechanism)*

*Forming an emotional* __reaction or attitude__ that is __the opposite__ of __one’s__ threatening or unacceptable __actual__ thoughts.

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*ex~ 7yo Darnell likes Annie but he makes fun of her & acts mean in her*

Displacement *(defense mechanism)*

Expressing feelings that would be threatening __if directed__ at the __real__ target onto a __less threatening substitute__ target.

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*ex~ Sandra’s teacher scolds her & she goes home to pick a fight w/ her brother angrily.*

Regression *(defense mechanism)*

Falling back on __childlike patterns__ as a way of __coping__ w/ stressful situations.

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*ex~1st-year college roommate is not used to college & gets overwhelmed so she starts sucking her thumb (like she did when she was young), to cope.*

Identification *(defense mechanism)*

Trying to become like __someone else__ to deal w/ one’s __anxiety__.

\
*ex~ Marie really admires Suzy, the most popular girl in school, & tries to copy her behavior & dress.*

Compensation (substitution) *(defense mechanism)*

Trying to __make up for areas__ in which a __lack__ is perceived by becoming __superior__ in __some other area__.

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*ex~ Reggie is not good at athletics, so he puts all of his energies into becoming an academic scholar.*

Sublimination *(defense mechanism)*

Turning socially __unacceptable urges__ into socially __acceptable behavior__.

\
*ex~ Alain, who is very aggressive, becomes a professional hockey player.*

Intellectualization *(defense mechanism)*

__Removing emotions__ from a situation; very __logical thinking__

Psychosexual Stages of Development

__Developmental periods__ w/ a characteristic __sexual focus__ that leaves their mark on __adult personality__. Each __stage__ corresponds w/ a specific __area__/__source__ of __pleasure__.

Fixation

__IF__ a stage is __not resolved__ successfully, a fixation may result. A fixation is a __preoccupation__ w/ a particular source of __pleasure__.

Oral Stage (0-1 yr)

__Mouth__ is the source of pleasure; the focus is on __breastfeeding/weaning__ to determine if successful resolution.

Fixation: __biting, chewing, sarcasm, smoking,__ etc.

Anal Stage (1-3 yrs) ; *(2 things)*

Focuses is on potty training to determine if there is a successful resolution.


1. **Anal Retentive~** 

(too early or too harsh); Organized, clean, likes control.


2. **Anal Expulsive~**

(too late or too lax): messy, disorganized, impulsive.

Phallic Stage (3-5 yrs) ; *(2 things)*

Source of pleasure: __genitals__. D:;

\
**Oedipus complex (boys)~**

Little boys __desire__ __mommy__ & want to __kill__ __daddy__.

\
**Electra complex (girls)**

Little girls __desire daddy__ & want to __kill mommy__. \**Girls develop* __*penis envy*__

*(as a result, children use* __*reaction formation*__ *&* __*identification*__ *& cling to the* __*same-sex parent.*__ *This is where the morals of the* __*superego*__ *are learned).*

__*Fixation:*__ *mommy/daddy issues; trouble finding a mate.*

Latency Stage (5 yrs-adolescence)

__Sexual impulses__ are __dormant__; nothing really happens. Most __interactions__ occur w/ __same-sex__ children.

Genital Stage (adolescence +)

__Sexual desires reappear__; __earlier fixation__ reappears, sexual energies are channeled toward peers of the __other sex__, rather than toward oneself.

Personal Unconcious

__Houses material__ that is __not__ within one’s conscious awareness bc it has been __repressed__ or __forgotten__. (our __traditional view of the unconscious__),

Collective Unconscious

A __storehouse__ of __latent__ memory traces __inherited__ from people’s __ancestral__ past; __shared by the entire human race__.

Archetypes *(symbols of collective unconcious)*

Ancestral memories; emotionally charged images & thought forms that have __universal meaning__. (used in dream analysis)

Persona *= mask to hide true self (being “fake”)*

How we present ourselves to the world. The persona represents all of the diff. social masks that we wear among various groups & situations. It acts to __shield the eg__o from negative images.

(ALFRED ADLER) Striving for superiority (overcoming feelings of inferiority)

\*__Inferiority__: a feeling, often unconscious, that one is “lesser” to others in some way (physical, social, economical, intellectual, etc.)

\*As a result, we use __compensation__, which drives us to excel (__strive for superiority__) in other areas in our lives. 

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***Important note: A “complex” indicates a serious issue within one’s personality.  For example, a neurotic concern with feeling inferior to others is called an inferiority complex.  An insatiable need to prove oneself, often to demonstrate superiority over others, is called a superiority complex.***

KAREN HORNEY

\*womb envy (men compensate in other ways)

While Freud argued __personality differences in gender__ were biological, Horney argued that they __were societal/cultural__. She also focused on how diff. personalities were a rep. of __different ways of attaining love/affection__.

Object Relations

Early relationships between infants & significant objects (especially people) shape personality.

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***Adler & Horney are referred to as Neo-Freudians & focus on social & early childhood experiences that shape personality.***

Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives (Advantages)

* Unconscious forces do influence behavior.
* Internal conflicts do exist.
* Early childhood experiences do influence adult behavior.
* People use defense mechanisms.

Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives (Disadvantage)

* Lacks empirical evidence (all).
* Unrepresentative samples (Freud).
* Inaccurate reporting of data & method of conducting research had leading questions (Freud)
* Ignore consciousness (all).

**Cognitive-Behavioral Perspectives**

Emphasizes __cognitive processes__, such as thinking & judging, in the development of personality. These cognitive processes contribute to __learned behaviors__ that are central to one’s personality.

**B.F. Skinner & Behaviorism**

Personality (response tendencies) is developed through __rewards & punishments__.

Reciprocal Determinism (**Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory)**

__Thoughts__/cognition, __behaviors__, & __environmental__ factors all interact & influence each other.

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*ex~ BEHAVIOR: drug. ENVIRONMENT: hangs out with people that do drugs. PERSONAL FACTORS: maybe they think they have depressive thoughts, too addicted. (ENDLESS LOOP)*

Self-efficacy (**Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory)**

One’s beliefs about their __ability to succeed__ (produce expected outcomes) in a new situation. Can be high or low. Can be general or situation specific.

**Walter Mischel & The Person-Situation Controversy**

Mischel’s theories focused on the importance of the situation in determining behavior. Identified certain “__person variables__'' & “__situational variables__'' in guiding behavior.

**Julian Rotter’s Expectancy Theory & Locus of Control**

Behavior is determined by how much you believe your actions impact your environment.

* People are described as having either an __internal LOC__ (yes, my behavior impacts my environment) or __external LOC__ (no, my behavior does not affect my environment)

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*(voting) Internal LOC: Yes, my vote will count & make a difference. External LOC: why does my one vote matter?*  \n \n *(job interview) Internal LOC: I can convince them that I should get the job. External LOC: They’re either going to hate or love me, no point in preparing.*

Evaluating Cognitive-Behavioral Perspectives (Advantages)

* empirical evidence
* objective
* emphasizes the role of the 
* environment & cognitive processes

Evaluating Cognitive-Behavioral Perspectives (Disadvantages)

* de-emphasizes free will in behavior (too much emphasis on environment)
* ignores unconscious & biological influences

Humanistic Perspectives (aka phenomenological)

emphasizes the unique qualities in humans, especially their freedom to choose their destiny & potential for personal growth; be the best that they can be.

**Roger’s Person-Centered Theories (3)**

1. Self-concept (“schema”)
2. Self-discrepancy theory (incongruence)
3. (Development of the Self) Conditions of worth & feeling unconditional love

Self-Concept “schema”

Collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, human qualities, and typical behavior. (people are subjective in their self-concept)

Self-discrepancy theory (incongruence)

Actual self: who we are

Ideal self: who we wish we were

Ought self: who “they” say we would be

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\*Is our actual self congruence w/ our ideal self? Ought self? 

\*Negative emotions result from incongruencies & create a low self-concept.

(Development of the Self) Conditions of worth & feeling unconditional love

\*Conditions of worth are created when the person is evaluated rather than the behavior.

\*The development of the self is determined by the extent to which parents make their love conditional. *(positive self-concept is based on unconditional love)*

Maslow’s Heirarchy

*(Hierarchy of needs (some needs are more important than others) He said basic needs need to be satisfied 1st.)*

Self-actualization

The need to fulfill one's potential; be the best you can be.

Growth Orientated vs. Deficiency Orientation

\*Growth orientation: focusing on what __you have__.

\*Deficiency orientation: Focusing on __what’s missing__.

*Those w/ a* __*growth orientation*__ *are* __*healthier*__ *& more* __*likely*__ *to reach* __*self-actualization*__*.*

Evaluating Humanistic Perspective (Advantages)

* Group therapies
* Child-rearing & relationships in general
* Free will to change

Evaluating Humanistic Perspective (Disadvantages)

* Poor testability & inadequate evidence.
* Unrealistic view of human nature (too positive)
* Confined to western cultures (very individualistic)
* Ignores biological, social, learning, unconscious factors.

Independent self-system v. dependent self-system (Interdependent)

aka

(Individualism v. Collectivism)

Individualism: indivisual succession

*(putting personal goals ahead of group goals)*

Collectivism: group succession

*(putting group goals ahead of personal goals)*

Objective Tests (self-report inventories)

__T/F, Y/N, MC questions__/statements that can __be scored__.

MMPI

\*Most widely used; used in __diagnosis__

\*(__566 T/F__ questions; __10 clinical__ scales & __4 validity__ scales)

16PF (Catell) & NEO-PI-R (Costa & McCrae) (Big 5)

NEO-P: __Compares__ results from __private__ & __public__ versions. 

*(take a test about yourself, someone else takes a test about you)*

MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)

Another __objective test__ (gives __4 letters__ = __personality type__)

Strengths v Weaknesses w/ Personality Assessments (Advantages)

* objective

Strengths v Weaknesses w/ Personality Assessments (Disavantages)

* self-report data
* social-desirability bias
* response sets

Projective Tests

participants respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal the subject’s __unconscious__ needs, feelings, & personality traits & can be analyzed in many different ways.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Tell the story of a picture.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

shown a __series__ of inkblots; __respond__ to what you __see__

Strengths v. Weaknesses of Projective Tests

Strengths: __not apparent__ to participants, insight into __unconscious__

Weaknesses: __little__ evidence, how do you know if the interpretation is __accurate?__ (very __subjective__), etc...

Motivation

The factors that __influence__ the __intuition__, __direction__, __intensity__, & __persistence__ of behavior.

Biological Factors

Food, water, sleep, sex, temp., __physiological factors__. (drugs/hormones) “internal”

Social Factors

For what?: __approval__ for others, __acceptance__, __fitting__ in/__standing__ out. 

By whom?: parents/siblings, friends, teachers, media, culture/religion, etc. “external”

Cognitive Factors

__Beliefs__, thoughts, __expectations__, & __views__ of yourself & of the world, __curiosity__, intellectual growth, etc. “internal”.

Emotional Factors

Love, happiness, anger, fear, jealousy, etc. “internal”

Primary v. Secondary Motives/Drives

Primary: __biological__ needs: related to __survival__. (ex: food, water, oxygen, sleep, etc.)

Secondary: __acquired__ drives that are __culturally__ determined/__learned__. (ex: obtaining $, intimacy, social approval, etc.)

Drive Theory (aka Drive Reduction Theory)

We are __motivated__ to __maintain homeostasis__. (balance). *(this theory best explains biological needs).*

Homeostasis

State of __physiological__ equilibrium or __stability__.

Drive

__Internal__ state of __tension__ that motivates an organism to believe in a certain __way__ in order to restore __homeostasis__.

Incentive Theory

Incentive = an __external__ goal.

We are motivated to __obtain desirable stimuli__ or __avoid negative__ stimuli. (ex: $, promotion, food, approval, a good grade, etc.)

Evolutionary Theory

Based on __survival__/natural selection; __reproductive__ capacity; automatic, __involuntary__, & unlearned __behaviors__. (ex: birds fly south for the winter).

Arousal Theory

People are motivated to maintain their __optimal level of arousal__ *(which is diff. for everyone).*

* If __over-aroused__ (above your optimal level) = motivated to __reduce__ level.

If __under-aroused__ (below your optimal level) = motivated to increase arousal level.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

People are motivated to __fulfill certain needs__ that are __arranged__ in a __hierarchy__; the __lower needs__ on the hierarchy must be filled __before__ someone can be motivated by any of the higher level hierarchies. (review)

Lateral Hypothalamus

__Feeding__ center;  “__ON__” switch.

Ventromedial Hypothesis/Nucleus

__Satiety__ center; “__OFF__” switch.

Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN)

__Controls__ the selection of __specific foods__ & __blood sugar l__evels.  *(ever wonder why you choose the foods you do?!)*

Glucose

Food is __converted__ into glucose (simple sugars) & provides a source of __energy__. Low levels = hungry.

Insulin

Secreted by __pancreas__; __reduces appetite__.

Ghrelin

Released by __empty stomach__ = __stimulates appetite__; causes stomach __contractions__.