AP Psych: Social Psychology Unit

Social Psychology

Scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Social Categorization

organize people into groups based on common characteristics (age, gender, race, occupation, etc)

Implicit Personality Theory

General expectations that we build around a person after we know something of their central traits

Personal Perception

The different mental processes that we use to form impressions of other people

Attribution Theory

How we explain behavior (Fritz Heider)

Dispositional Rationale

Crediting behavior to someone’s stable enduring (personality) traits (Internal)

Situational Rationale

Crediting someone’s behavior to the situation they are in (External)

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

The tendency to overestimate one’s dispositional rationale while underestimating one’s situational rationale when explaining someone else’s behavior

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to blame situational factors for your own behavior, but attributing dispositional factors to the behavior of others (When comparing yourself to others)

Self-Serving Bias

A readiness to perceive oneself favorably (Individualistic Cultures)

Self-effacing (Modesty) Bias

Tendency to give the group credit for successes while blaming oneself for failures (Collectivist Cultures)

Saliency Bias

Tendency to focus on the single most noticeable factor when explaining the causes of behavior

Attitudes

Feelings (often influenced by our beliefs) that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as the speaker’s attractiveness, and respond with favorable thoughts

Central Route to Persuasion

Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments made, and respond with favorable thoughts

Rule of Reciprocity

Obligation to return a favor (Door-in-the-face, that’s not all technique)

Door-in-the-face

A large and unreasonable request followed by a smaller request, promoting a sense of false compromise

That’s not all technique

Makes an initial offer, and then improves upon it

Rule of Commitment

Psychological and interpersonal pressure to behave consistently with an earlier commitment (foot-in-the-door, low ball)

Foot-in-the-door

Small request followed by a second larger request, pressuring you to behave consistently

Low Ball

Understating the cost/details of a product, pull out/change offer at the last moment, you feel compelled to stay keep committed

Role

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Power of the Situation

People change the way they act based on the environments they are placed in and the roles they play in those environments

Cognitive Dissonance

The theory that we act to reduce discomfort when we feel two of our thoughts (or thoughts and actions) are inconsistent because it creates internal tension

Norms

Understood rules for accepted and expected behavior

Social Contagion

The spread of ideas, attitudes, or behavior patterns in a group through imitation and conformity

Chameleon Effect

Tendency to unconsciously mimic the minor actions of others

Mood Contagion

Tendency to take on the emotional tones of those around us

Positive Herding

Social networks that serve as contagious pathways for moods

Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that fire when you do an action and when watching someone else do that same action

Conformity

Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Asch

Ran the Line Conformity Experiment

Zimbardo

Ran the Stanford Prison Experiment

Normative Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from the assumption that others hold more accurate/relevant information than you do

(one’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality)

Obedience

Behavior in compliance with a direct command, often one issued by a person in a position of authority

Milgram

Obedience shock experiment

Proximity

One is more likely to be obedient if orders are given by an authority figure close at hand

Prestige/Power

If orders are given by a powerful or trusted institution, they are more likely to be obedient

Depersonalize/Distance

If one is removed from the consequences of their actions, they are more likely to be obedient.

Lack of disobedience

If an entire group is obeying orders, one is much more likely to be obedient than if there are models of defiance

Social Control

The power of the situation

Personal Control

The power of the individual

Minority Influence

The power of 1 or 2 individuals to sway majorities

Reactance

Doing the opposite of what we are expected or pressured to do in order to reassert one’s freedom

Social Facilitation

Improved performance of simple or well-learned tasks when in the presence of others

Social Inhibition

Decreased performance on new or difficult tasks when in the presence of others

Social Striving

The tendency to give more effort when part of a group than when working individually

Social Loafing

The tendency to exert less effort when in a group than when held individually accountable

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness & self-restraint which often occurs when in group situation that foster arousal and anonymity

Group Polarization

The radicalization/enhancement of one’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with agreeing parties

Group Think

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in the group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Cultural Influence

Behaviors, ideals, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Prejudice

An unjustifiable (typically negative) attitude toward a group and its members

Stereotypes

A generalized (sometimes accurate but typically overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Ethnocentrism

Assuming the superiority of one’s own (ethnic) group

Patronization

Low expectations of minorities leading to inflated praise and insufficient criticism

Implicit Prejudice

Unknown negative associations towards another group and its members

Just-World phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

In-group Bias

People with whom we share a common identity and therefore see as more favorable and diverse

Out-group Bias

Those perceived as different or apart from our “in-group” who we tend to see as homogeneous and unfavorable

Scapegoat Theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Other-race effect

The (unconscious) tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races

Victim Blaming

We tend to blame the victims of misfortunes for having caused their own misfortunes

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

Testosterone

Biochemical hormone which leads to increased aggression

Frusturation-Aggression

The idea that blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal creates an anger which can generate aggressive behavior

Aversive Stimuli

Factors like heat, crowds, pain, or smoke which evoke hostility or aggression

Social Script

A culturally modeled guide for how to act in certain scenarios

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon that repeated exposure to someone increases our liking of them

Halo Effect

The positive association between attractiveness and goodness, health, happiness, honesty, and success

Similarity

Similar views among individuals causes the bonds of attraction between them to strengthen

Reward Theory of Attraction

We like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, including those who are both able & willing to help us achieve our goals

Passionate Love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

Companionate Love

The deep affection we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Equity

When people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they put into it

Self-disclosure

The act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others

Expectancy Value Theory

People decide to pursure relationships with people by weighing the potential value of a relationship with them against their chances of success

Altruism

An unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Diffusion of Responsibility

With each person added to the responsibility to help, people feel less individually responsible to actually provide assistance

Bystander Effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Social Exchange Theory

The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will help (not hurt) those who have previously helped them, and that we will in turn help those who have once helped us

Social-Responsibility Norm

The expectation that people will help those who need out help (espcially young children and the elderly)

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goal, or ideals

Social Traps

Situations where by pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, conflicting parties become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Mirror-image perceptions

Mutual views held by conflicting parties, when each side sees themselves as ethical and peaceful, but the other side as evil and aggressive

Self-fulfilling prophecies

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Superordinate Goals

Shared difficulties that override differences between groups by requiring the cooperation of both parties

Sherif

Ran the Robbers Cave experiment

Autocratic/Authoritarian

Leadership style which involves a controlling leader who provides specific instructions to their group: Most efficient style, but least cooperative & creative

Democratic Leadership

Leadership style in which the leader offers guidance to group members, but allows them to participate and have imput: Most effective, engaging, and cooperative

Laissez-Faire Leadership

Leadership style in which the leader offers little to no guidance and leaves decision making up to the group: Least productive style which puts more demand on the leader