AP PSYCH UNIT 1

Genetic Predisposition

An inherited tendency to develop certain traits or behaviors.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental factors.

Twin Studies

Research studies that compare the similarities between identical and fraternal twins.

Adoption Studies

Research studies that assess the similarities between adopted children and their adoptive versus biological parents.

Family Studies

Research studies that examine the similarities and differences among family members.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry information from sense organs to the CNS.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry messages from the CNS to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons that act as a middle man for sensory and motor neurons, integrating and coordinating signals.

Peripheral Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that includes all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary actions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for fight or flight.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy.

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it is not firing, characterized by a slightly negative charge.

Action Potential

An electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron.

All-or-None Principle

The principle stating that a neuron either fires at full strength or does not fire at all.

Refractory Period

A period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire.

Depolarization

The process that occurs when the electrical charge of the neuron becomes less negative, allowing Na+ ions to flow in.

Repolarization

The process that occurs when K+ ions flow out of the neuron, restoring the negative charge of the membrane.

Threshold

The level that must be reached for an action potential to occur.

Sodium/Potassium Pump

A mechanism that helps to depolarize new sections of the axon and repolarize previous sections.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

Chemical Synapse

A type of synapse that involves neurotransmitters.

Electrical Synapse

A type of synapse that uses direct ion flow.

Neurotransmitters

Internal chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in skeletal and heart muscle function, attention, and memory.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter associated with the fight or flight response, attention, and alertness.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates moods and emotional states.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, pleasure, and the regulation of sleep-wake cycles.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that modulate the experience of pain or pleasure.

GABA

The most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates daily sleep-wake cycles.

Glutamate

A neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, sensory, and motor functions.

Myasthenia Gravis

A disruption to neural transmission that affects muscle control.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disruption to neural transmission caused by damage to the myelin sheath.

Hormones

Internal chemicals produced by the endocrine system that have long-lasting effects.

Adrenaline

A hormone involved in the fight or flight response.

Leptin

A hormone that acts as a hunger suppressant.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger.

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in labor, lactation, and love.

Psychoactive Drugs

External chemicals that impact the function of neurotransmitters.

Tolerance

The need for larger doses of a drug to achieve the same effect.

Addiction

A disease involving physical and/or psychological dependence on a substance.

Withdrawal

Symptoms associated with stopping the use of a drug.

Groups of neurons link together to form neural circuits that carry out specific tasks.

What is the role of neural circuits in the brain?

The brainstem.

What connects the brain and spinal cord?

The brainstem, cerebellum, and reticular formation.

What are the main components of the hindbrain?

Automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

What functions does the medulla control?

Coordinates the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain, regulating functions like hearing and facial sensations.

What is the function of the pons?

Controls arousal and wakefulness; damage can lead to a coma.

What is the role of the reticular formation?

Coordination of fine muscle movement, balance, and procedural learning.

What does the cerebellum control?

Coordinates sensory information with simple movements and supports functions like vision and motor control.

What is the primary function of the midbrain?

The cerebrum is the front part of the brain, comprising gray matter (cerebral cortex) and white matter, and includes the limbic system and corpus callosum.

What is the cerebrum and its main components?

A band of neural fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.

What is the corpus callosum?

Control linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning.

What are the primary functions of the frontal lobes?

Most types of skeletal movement; the area dedicated to it corresponds to the body parts used in purposeful movement.

What does the motor cortex control?

Speech production; damage can lead to Broca's aphasia.

What is Broca's area responsible for?

Association areas for processing and organizing information and the somatosensory cortex for touch sensitivity.

What do the parietal lobes control?

Processes touch sensitivity; more sensitive areas of the body have more area dedicated to them on the cortex.

What is the function of the somatosensory cortex?

Control auditory and linguistic processing; the right temporal lobe helps recognize faces.

What are the main functions of the temporal lobes?

Speech comprehension; damage can lead to Wernicke's aphasia, affecting understanding of spoken language.

What is Wernicke's area responsible for?

Visual information.

What do the occipital lobes primarily process?

Acts as a relay station for sensory information, directing it to the appropriate areas of the brain.

What is the function of the thalamus?

*The thalamus acts as a sensory switchboard, directing sensory information (except smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

What is the primary function of the thalamus?

The hypothalamus regulates the body, enabling fight or flight responses, hunger and thirst drives, body temperature maintenance, and the sexual response cycle.

What role does the hypothalamus play in the body?

Fight, Flight, Food, Sex, and Reward.

What are the 'Four F's and an R' associated with the hypothalamus

learning, memory, and converting short-term memories to long-term memories.

What is the hippocampus responsible for?

Memories are routed through the hippocampus to be directed to appropriate areas for storage, but they are not stored there.

How does the hippocampus function in memory storage?

The amygdala is responsible for processing fear and aggression, triggering fight-or-flight responses when exposed to threats.

What is the primary function of the amygdala?

The pituitary gland, controlled by the hypothalamus, releases hormones that regulate other endocrine glands and bodily systems, affecting growth and development.

What is the role of the pituitary gland?

speaking, language, mathematical calculations, and making literal interpretations.

What are the primary functions of the left hemisphere of the brain?

visual perception, recognition of emotions, and controlling the left side of the body.

What functions are associated with the right hemisphere of the brain?

A tamping iron accident damaged his frontal lobe, impairing his ability to filter emotional reactions from the limbic system.

What happened to Phineas Gage and what was the outcome?

Split-brain research studies the effects of severing the corpus callosum, revealing that each hemisphere specializes in different functions.

What is split-brain research?

Information from the left visual field goes to the right hemisphere, and information from the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere.

How are visual fields processed in the brain?

Her research showed that taxi drivers have increased size in portions of the hippocampus due to memorizing routes, indicating brain changes in response to experience.

What did Eleanor Maguire's research on London taxi drivers reveal?

Autopsies provide definitive diagnoses of neurological disorders and link brain pathology to behavior, as seen in case studies like patient H.M.

What is the significance of autopsies in neuroscience?

electrical activity in the brain, helping scientists study brain waves.

What does an EEG measure?

blood flow in the brain, showing which areas are active during specific tasks.

What does fMRI track?

Circadian Rhythm

24.5-26 hrs, regulated by Melatonin.

Beta Waves

Fast, low-amplitude electrical signals linked to active, alert, and problem-solving states.

Alpha Waves

Relatively slow waves observed when you are awake but relaxed, such as when in bed with eyes closed.

Theta Waves

Associated with deep, dreamless sleep and physical restoration.

Delta Waves

Slightly faster than theta waves and linked to deep relaxation, memory consolidation, intuition, and the transition between wakefulness and sleep.

Stage 1 Sleep

Includes hypnagogic sensations: vivid, dreamlike experiences during the transition from being awake to being asleep.

Stage 2 Sleep

Characterized by periodic sleep spindles and K-complexes; you are clearly asleep but can still be awakened without too much difficulty.

Stage 3 Sleep

Slow-wave sleep lasting about 30 minutes, during which the brain emits large, slow delta waves and you are hard to awaken.

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep, characterized by increased breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and low muscle tone.

Paradoxical Sleep

When we are at our most relaxed physically, we are experiencing one of our most active times mentally.

Dreams

The production during sleep of story line sequences of image, sensations, and perceptions usually occurring in story-like form; it occurs mainly during REM sleep.

Hypnagogic Sensations

Vivid, dreamlike experiences that occur during the transition from being awake to being asleep.

Sleep Spindles

Bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity occurring during Stage 2 sleep.

K-complexes

Sudden bursts of brain activity that occur during Stage 2 sleep.

NREM-1

The initial stage of non-REM sleep where you may experience fantastic images resembling hallucinations.

NREM-2

Stage of sleep where you relax more deeply and experience periodic sleep spindles

NREM-3

Stage of slow-wave sleep lasting about 30 minutes, where the brain emits large, slow delta waves.

REM Rebound

The phenomenon where the body compensates for lost REM sleep by increasing the duration of REM sleep in subsequent sleep cycles.

Restoration Theory

Suggests that REM sleep is important for the restructuring and reorganizing of the brain involved in normal development and processes related to learning and memory.

Memory Consolidation

The process by which sleep plays a housekeeping role that removes toxins in the brain and consolidates memories for long-term storage.

Causes of Insomnia

Includes depression and anxiety disorders, stress, diet, genetics, and abnormal sleeping patterns.