Studied by 18 people
Unit 6
Industrial Revolution
First coined 1799 to describe the burst of major inventions and economic expansion that began in BRI l.18c. Went hand in hand with the quickening of industrial growth, in which people created new inventions and machines like the spinning jenny or steam engine that demonstrated innovation by using new power sources or enhanced mechanisms that increase the rate of production and lead to greater efficiency. This revolution began and was led by BRI because they had greater access to raw materials (for energy and construction), had money circling, and a large workforce due to proletarianization.
Spinning Jenny
Simple, cheap hand-powered spinning machine created by James Hargreaves in 1765. Early models contained 6-24 spindles mounted on a sliding carriage, with each spinning a thread to increase efficiency and output. Women often worked this machine, using one hand to mow the carriage and the other to supply power. This machine flipped the cotton textile industry, making it so that now the male weaver needed to keep up with the work of the spinner instead of the opposite. Combined with the water frame to form the mule.
Water Frame
Spinning machine created by Richard Arkwright that had a capacity of several hundred spindles and used waterpower—therefore requiring a larger, specialized factory (mill). One flaw was that this could only spin course, strong thread, which then had to be respun on cottage jennies. This meant that the water frame did not completely take over the industry, but it was still a revolutionary product in that it demonstrated the wonders of natural power and played a part in inspiring later innovations like the mule.
Steam Engines
Invented by Thomas Savery (1698) and Thomas Newcomen (1705), burned coal to make steam, which was then used to operate a pump. Early models were superseded by James Watt’s more efficient steam engine, patented 1769, which added a separate condenser to reduce the waste of energy. They began very inefficient, but by the 1770s they were used in ENG/SCO, and this introduction of steam power led to the world having almost unlimited power, nearly replacing waterpower in the 178-s cotton factories, flour mills, malt, mills, flint mills, etc. This engine transformed the iron industry by increasing the quantity of pig iron that could be made through the use of steam-driven bellows in blast furnaces.
Rocket
George Stephenson’s effective locomotive first tested 1829 on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at 35 mph without a load. After the success of the locomotive, private companies began to build more rail lines and within 2 decades GB had main trunk lines, with this practice then spreading to outside countries. The railroads that were created as a result of Rocket’s success lowered shipping costs, pushed for bigger markets hat encouraged large factories that used sophisticated machinery, and created demand for unskilled labor.
Crystal Palace
The location of the Great Exhibition 1851 LON; an architectural masterpiece made entirely of glass/iron. The Great Exhibition was an industrial fair that gathered over 6m visitors, set at the palace in the middle of a large, centrally located park, and the event was sponsored by the BRI royal family to celebrate industrial tech and BRI’s role as an econ leader. The Crystal Palace’s materials were chosen because they had become both cheap and abundant.
Iron Law of Wages
ENG economist David Ricardo’s theory that the pressure of pop. growth would prevent wages form rising above the subsistence level. Similar to Thomas Malthus’ belief that women had to marry later to stunt population growth, as too many people would have bad effects, Ricardo claimed that wages would only ever be just enough to stop the workers from starving to death. This theory was proved wrong when industrialization largely increased productivity, but this did not happen until the 1820s or 1840s.
Tariff Protection
The government’s way of supporting and aiding its own economy by laying high taxes on imported goods from other countries, as when FRA responded to cheaper BRI goods flooding their country by imposing high tariffs on some imported products in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. Customs agreements also emerged among some GER states 1818, and in 1834 they made a customs union, Zollverein, that allowed goods to move through the alliance without tariffs despite a uniform tariff for other nations.
Factory Acts
ENG laws passed from 1802 to 1833 that limited the workday of child laborers and set minimum hygiene and safety requirements. These acts rose due to concerns over workplace environments from individuals like Robert Owen who felt that child labor practices were inhumane and needed to be stopped, and testified this before Parliament. The Factory Act of 1833 made a system of inspectors to enforce these decisions, and children aged 9-13 could work a max of 8 hours per day, while 14-18 could work 12, and those under 9 could not work at all (this did lead to families not being able to work together in the factory).
Separate Spheres
Gender division of labor with the wife at home as mother and homemaker and the husband as wage earner. This began to emerge by 1850 after the restriction of child labor and the collapse of the family work pattern, and women were forced into their jobs at home by being denied good-paying jobs. They were less likely to work after birthing their first child, poor women were typically the ones who worked still, and this was due to women not being able to care for their children at a job that timed them and required them to work loud equipment, it was impossible to do things like breast-feed while on the clock.
Mines Act of 1842
ENG law prohibiting underground work for all women and girls as well as for boys under ten. Introduced after middle class citizens investigated the conditions of the coal industry and were shocked to see to see girls working shirtless (really due to heat), which they claimed to be due to sexual interaction with the similarly scarcely clothed male miners. Many girls really worked with their close family that offered them protection, but these individuals felt that conditions were usage and wanted girls to not work in mines until puberty, which gathered backlash against some who needed the high wages of the job, but pleased those who were part of wealthier families.
Luddites
Handicraft workers who attached factories in N ENG 1811 and later, smashing the new machines that they felt were putting them out of work. Part of the groups of individuals who criticized the Industrial Revolution, following the Romantic poets who found factories satanic. This point of view was accepted by Friedrich Engels, who was then compelled to write his 1844 The Condition of the Working Class in England in which he talked about the severity of poverty (worse than before) and capitalism (was the culprit).
Class-Consciousness
Awareness of belonging to a distinct social and economic class whose interests might conflict with those of other classes. These classes were determined based on one’s relationship to the means of production (machines/factories), and the educated “public” became known as the middle class (beneath aristocracy), “people” as working class. This term was coined by Karl Marx, and debates quickly began to spark about conditions for the modern working class, and whether or not their conditions were worsening or improving, with some claiming that they were able to buy some necessities and worked in factories with manageable conditions..
Combination Acts
BRI laws passed 1799 that outlawed unions and strikes, favoring capitalist business people over skilled artisans. Bitterly resented and disregarded by many craft guilds, they were repealed by Parliament 1824. They built on worker anger by repealing their laws regulating wages 1813/1814, which led many capitalist ignoring traditional work rules and trying to food trades with women to lower wages. Many protests like those of cotton spinners in Manchester 1810 led to the repealing of these acts, where unions were tolerated.
Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham’s idea that social policies should promote “the greatest good for the greatest number.” This idea claimed that public issue should be death with on a rational, scientific basis (reminisce tof Enlightenment), and influenced Edwin Chadwick, who went on to become charged with the administration of relief to paupers under the Poor Law of 1834 and a powerful voice of reform. Using this logic, he became convinced that disease and death caused poverty, as a sick worker was unemployed and orphans were poor, and he felt that the government could prevent disease by cleaning the urban environment.
Germ Theory
The idea that disease was caused by the spread of living organisms that could be controlled. Developed by Louis Pasteur, who began studying fermentation for brewers 1854, using a microscope to develop a test that brewers could use to monitor fermentation and avoid spoilage, finding that the growth of living organisms was what caused fermentation, and that these organisms could be stopped by heating the drink (pasteurization, implemented 1860s). This introduced the idea that specific disease were caused by specific organisms (germs), and that these organisms could be controlled, leading to other thinkers like Robert Koch to use these findings to develop more advanced ideas and create effective vaccines for some diseases, and later, antibiotics.
Labor Aristocracy
The highly skilled workers, such as factory foremen and construction bosses (these were the most aristocratic, rose from ranks and proud of achievements), who made up about 15% of the working classes from 1850-1914. They earned 2/3 of the income of the bottom ranks of the servant-keeping classes, double that of the unskilled workers. Included members of the handicraft trades that had not been mechanized, but their status was not guaranteed to remain, as when factory production replaced many crafts lower skilled workers began to replace skilled artisans.
Sweated Industries
Poorly paid handicraft production, often carried out by married women paid by the piece and working at home. Many of those who joined this industry were working-class wives who had a growing family, small household income, and an unskilled/unemployed husband, who needed to work to ensure they could afford what was needed for their survival. Their young children often helped with work, and these women lacked any job security—they decorated dishes or embroidered, did laundry, or sewed, fueling the cheap clothes in department stores while enduring hard conditions.
Companionate Marriage
Marriage based on romantic love and middle-class family values that became increasingly dominant in the second half of the nineteenth century. This idea arose by the 1850s, it reflected an idealized model of life in which money was not the main reason for marriage—although this was not disregarded by any means. The middle class now had a culture of romantic love within art, life, and literature, that ensured couples were a right match and acted in a certain way, being chaperoned to stop premarital sex and limiting physical intimacy before a marriage where men had to be able to support a wife, child and servant (leading to men marrying late/never and women not being able to pursue a career or housing without marriage).
Suffrage Movement
A militant movement for women’s right to vote led by middle-class BRI women around 1900. Suffragettes in the decade before WWI marches I public demonstrations, heckled Parliament, and slashing paintings in the LON National Gallery. They were jailed for these actions, and went on hunger strikes, only to be dismissed by conservatives as “the shrieking sisterhood”, only gathering the vote in 1919. Women had endured mistreatment in society for a while, being not a full student at university in GER, for example, and having to break through barriers to get a good education and get a good job. By 1913 the Federation of GER Women’s Association had 470k members and impacted the GER Civil Code 1906 (gave property rights and gains in family law) showing how much traction this movement got.
Thermodynamics
Branch of physics built on Newton’s laws of mechanics that investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy. An example of the translation of better scientific knowledge into practical human benefits, this concept also built on studies of steam engines. The law of conservation of energy held that different forms if energy could be converted but not created/destroyed, and this branch created fundamental laws that were applied to mechanical engineering, chemical processes, and other fields.
Second Industrial Revolution
The burst of industrial creativity and technological innovation that promoted strong economic growth in the last third of the nineteenth century. This led to the public, common people becoming more familiar with science, although not completely knowledgeable. It also led to philosophical implications of science from the Enlightenment spreading to broad parts of the population, and science becoming a prestigious practice after 1850, when it was seen as the only objective way to find reality.
Evolution
The idea, applied by thinkers in many fields, that stresses gradual change and continuous adjustment. Charles Darwin came up with this theory and summarized it in his On the Origin of Species by the Means of Natural Selection (1859). He argued that the differences between members of the species help some survive while the others perish—natural selection. This led to some backlash over Darwin being accused of preaching anti-Christian beliefs, and his idea that men descended from apes was mocked. He did get some praise though, being called the “Newton of biology.”
Social Darwinism
A body of thought drawn from the ideas of Darwin that applied the theory of biological evolution to human affairs and saw the human race as driven by an unending economic struggle that would determine the survival of the fittest. Heavily pushed by Herbert Spencer, who saw the human race as driven forward to ever-greater specialization and progress. In his view, the poor were the weak members of society, and the rich were the strong. Nationalists were especially fond of the idea, as they saw global competition between countries as a struggle for survival. Similarly, imperialists used these ideas to justify the natural rule of the West over the less civil colonial subjects and territories.
Realism
A literary movement that, in contrast to Romanticism, stressed the depiction of life as it actually was. Emerging in the 1840s and dominating Western culture until the 1890s, artists wanted to expose the sordid reality of modern life. Also called Naturalism, the movement started by dissecting the middle classes and then the working classes (specifically the urban) and covered previously taboo topics like sex, labor strikes, violence, alcoholism, and savagery, which led to criticism by middle-class critics who saw the style as ugly sensationalism. Began in France, with influential figures including Emile Zola and Honore Daumier.
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