Confrontation and Cooperation, c1963-1972​

Who was Lyndon B. Johnson?

US President from 1963–69 who escalated American involvement in Vietnam.

What was Johnson’s approach to Vietnam?

Containment of communism and support for South Vietnam; aimed to prevent the “Domino Effect” in Southeast Asia.

How did Johnson justify US involvement?

Fear that if South Vietnam fell, other countries in the region would follow (Domino Theory).

What was the principle of “American credibility”?

Johnson believed the US had to act to maintain global influence and credibility with allies.

What happened in the Gulf of Tonkin?

Alleged attacks on US destroyers by North Vietnamese patrol boats.

What did the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution allow?

Gave Johnson authority to “take all necessary measures” to protect US forces, effectively enabling full-scale military escalation.

Why was the resolution significant?

It marked the start of major US military involvement in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war.

How did US involvement escalate after 1964?

Troop numbers increased, air campaigns (Operation Rolling Thunder) expanded, and ground forces were deployed.

How many US troops were in Vietnam by 1968?

Around 536,000.

What strategy did the US use?

Search-and-destroy missions, bombing campaigns, and pacification programs.

What were the strengths of the US/South Vietnamese forces?

Superior technology, firepower, and air support.

What were the weaknesses of the US/South Vietnamese forces?

Lack of local knowledge, guerrilla warfare difficulties, and low morale among troops and South Vietnamese population.

What were the strengths of the Viet Cong/North Vietnamese?

Guerrilla tactics, knowledge of the terrain, support from local population, and resilience.

What were the weaknesses of the Viet Cong/North Vietnamese?

Less advanced weaponry, high casualty rates, reliance on supply lines like the Ho Chi Minh Trail.

What was the Tet Offensive?

A massive, coordinated attack by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces on South Vietnamese cities during the Tet Lunar New Year.

Why was it significant militarily?

Militarily, the offensive was a failure for the communists—they suffered heavy losses.

Why was it significant politically?

It shocked the US public and media, undermined confidence in Johnson, and shifted opinion against the war.

What was the impact on US policy?

Johnson’s approval ratings dropped, leading him not to seek re-election in 1968 and prompting eventual steps toward de-escalation.

What was the overall US strategy in Vietnam?

Containment of communism through military intervention, support of South Vietnam, and escalation of force as needed.

What were the main challenges for the US?

Guerrilla warfare, local population support for Viet Cong, and domestic opposition to the war.

How did the Tet Offensive change the course of the war?

Showed that the US could not easily defeat the communists, shifted public opinion, and led to political consequences for Johnson.

What does this period reveal about Cold War confrontations?

Military superiority did not guarantee success; local factors and public opinion were crucial in proxy wars.

What was Vietnamisation?

Nixon’s strategy to gradually withdraw US troops while building up South Vietnamese forces to take over the fighting.

What were the goals of Vietnamisation?

• Reduce US casualties

• Maintain South Vietnam’s resistance to communism

• Encourage South Vietnamese self-reliance

How successful was Vietnamisation initially?

Mixed; South Vietnamese forces increased in size and capability, but morale and effectiveness were uneven.

Why did Nixon expand the war into Cambodia and Laos?

To attack Viet Cong and North Vietnamese supply lines, especially the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and to pressure North Vietnam in peace talks.

What were the consequences of these incursions?

• Short-term military gains

• Domestic protest in the US (e.g., Kent State shootings)

• Increased regional instability

Why did Nixon improve relations with China?

To exploit the Sino-Soviet split, gain leverage over North Vietnam, and open diplomatic and trade channels.

What were the major steps in Nixon’s China policy?

1972 visit to Beijing, recognition of the PRC, and strategic dialogue on Cold War issues.

How did relations with China affect the Vietnam War?

Increased pressure on North Vietnam to negotiate; strengthened US strategic position vis-à-vis the USSR.

When did the Paris Peace Talks begin?

1968–1969 (pre-Nixon) but gained momentum under Nixon.

Who were the main parties?

• North Vietnam

• South Vietnam

• the US

• the National Liberation Front (Viet Cong)

What were the main objectives of the talks?

Ceasefire, withdrawal of US troops, and political settlement for South Vietnam.

How did Nixon use negotiations strategically?

Coupled diplomacy with military pressure (bombing campaigns and Vietnamisation) to strengthen US bargaining position.

What was Nixon’s overall strategy in Vietnam?

Reduce direct US involvement while keeping South Vietnam free from communism using Vietnamisation, military pressure, and diplomatic leverage.

How did Nixon combine diplomacy and military strategy?

Expanded war into Cambodia/Laos, improved relations with China, and used peace talks to negotiate favorable terms.

What were the key challenges of Nixon’s policy?

Domestic opposition, continued Viet Cong/North Vietnamese resistance, and regional instability.

What was the significance of Nixon’s Vietnam policy?

Set the stage for eventual US withdrawal, demonstrated the limits of US power in a protracted Cold War proxy conflict, and showed how diplomacy could complement military strategy.

How did the Cuban Missile Crisis change Khrushchev and Kennedy’s attitudes?

Both realised the dangers of nuclear war; became more cautious, open to negotiation, and focused on avoiding direct confrontation. 

What lessons did the crisis teach them? 

• Communication was vital

• Miscalculations could lead to global catastrophe

• Superpower rivalry needed careful management 

What was the Washington-Moscow ‘hotline’?

What was the Washington-Moscow ‘hotline’?

When was it established?

1963, following the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Why was it important?

Allowed rapid communication to prevent misunderstandings and reduce the risk of nuclear war. 

What did the Moscow Test Ban Treaty do? 

Banned nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater. 

Why was it significant? 

• Reduced radioactive fallout 

• Marked the first major arms control agreement between the superpowers 

• Signalled a willingness to cooperate despite Cold War tensions 

What was the goal of the NPT (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty)?

To prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to new countries and promote peaceful uses of nuclear energy. 

Who signed it initially? (NPT)

Major nuclear powers (US, USSR, UK) and many non-nuclear states. 

Why was it important? (NPT)

Helped stabilise the nuclear balance and reinforced international norms against proliferation.

What efforts were made to reduce nuclear materials?

Agreements to limit production of fissile materials (plutonium and enriched uranium). 

Why was this important? 

Reduced the risk of new weapons development and potential nuclear escalation. 

What does this show about superpower relations? 

Cooperation was possible even during the Cold War when mutual security interests were clear. 

What marked the period of limited cooperation after the Cuban Missile Crisis? 

Establishment of the hotline, the Moscow Test Ban Treaty, NPT, and efforts to limit nuclear materials. 

How did these measures impact the Cold War? 

Reduced the immediate risk of nuclear war and created frameworks for arms control, showing that diplomacy could coexist with rivalry. 

What was the broader significance?

Demonstrated that crises could lead to pragmatic cooperation, setting the stage for later détente in the 1970s.

What triggered the crisis in Czechoslovakia? 

The reformist government of Alexander Dubček introduced liberal policies in what became known as the “Prague Spring,” including freedom of speech, press, and travel.

Why did the USSR view these reforms as a threat?

They challenged Soviet control over the Eastern Bloc and risked encouraging similar reforms in other satellite states.

How did the USSR respond?

In August 1968, Warsaw Pact troops (mainly Soviet) invaded Czechoslovakia to halt reforms and restore strict communist control.

What was the Brezhnev Doctrine?

Soviet policy stating that the USSR had the right to intervene in any socialist country threatened by “counter-revolution” or anti-Soviet activity.

Why was it significant?

• Justified the invasion of Czechoslovakia 

• Reinforced Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe 

• Signaled limits of autonomy for Warsaw Pact states 

What was the impact on Eastern Europe?

What was the impact on Eastern Europe?

How were USSR-China relations in 1968? 

How were USSR-China relations in 1968? 

What were the main points of tension?

• Ideological differences (Mao vs. Brezhnev) 

• Border disputes 

• Competition for leadership in the communist world 

How did the Czechoslovakia crisis affect China?

China condemned the invasion as “social-imperialist,” worsening relations and deepening the split. 

What pressures did the USSR face in 1968? 

• Desire to maintain control over satellite states 

• Managing ideological rivalry with China 

• Internal challenges from reform movements like the Prague Spring 

How did the USSR respond to these pressures?

Military intervention, enforcing the Brezhnev Doctrine, and asserting dominance in the Eastern Bloc.

What was the significance of 1968 for the Cold War? 

Showed the limits of liberalisation in Eastern Europe, highlighted superpower rivalries within the communist world, and reinforced the USSR’s control over its satellite states.