AP Psychology unit 1A

Nature-nurture issue

The long standing controversy relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

EX: Nature: eye color. nurture: conflict management style 

Natural selection

The principle that inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

EX: Faster fish live, slower fish die and can’t reproduce

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

EX: May ask, How are we humans alike because of our shared biology and evolutionary history?

Behavior genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior 

EX:May ask, How do we indivually differ because of our differing genes and environments

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change 

EX: gene that determines eyes sight mutates: glasses

Environment

every nongenetic influence

EX:prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to off spring

EX: Pre-disposal to mental illness

Genes

The biochemical unit of heredity 

EX: environmental events “turn on” genes, rather like hot water, enabling a tea bag to express its flavor 

genome

The complete instructions for making an organism

EX:what separates human from being tulips or bananas

Identical twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

EX:identical twins can be same sex only, fraternal can be same or different sex

Fraternal twins

individuals who developed from two separate fertilized eggs, resulting in genetically unique siblings.

EX: genetically no closer than normal siblings

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

EX:go barefoot=develop callouses—neighbor who wears shoes=tenderfoot. The difference between the two of you is an effect of the environment. But it is a product of adaptation

Epigenetics

The study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change)

EX:African butterfly green in the summer and brown in the winter

Nervous system

The bodys speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

EX: communication network takes in information from the world and the body's tissues make decisions and sends back info and orders to the tissue

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord (decision makers)

Peripheral nervous system 

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body 

EX:responsible for gathering and transmitting CNS decisions

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural cables, connecting the CNS with muscle, glands and sensory organs

EX:Optic nerve bundles of millions axons into a single cable carrying the messages from the eye to the brain

Sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry incoming info from the body's tissues and sensory receptor to the brain and spinal cord

Motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing info from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

EX: a few million sensory neurons and motor neurons but billions of interneurons

somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

EX: when a friend taps you on the shoulder, your somatic nervous system reports to your brain the current state of your skeletal muscles and carries instructions back, triggering you to your head to turn

autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscle of the internal organs. its sympathetic division arouses, its parasympathetic division calms

EX: ANS influences glandular activity and heart rate

Sympathetic nervous system

The division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

EX:Fight or flight response

parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy

EX: rest and digest

Reflexes

A simple, autonomic response to a sensory stimulus

EX: knee-jerk reflex

Neurons

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

EX: throughout life, new neurons are born and unused neurons wither away

Cell body

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cells life-support center

Dendrites

A neurons often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the

cell body

axon

The segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

EX: as myelin is laid down up to age 25, neural efficiency, judgement and self control grow

Glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support nourish and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking and memory

Action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge travels down the axon

EX: impulse speed can range from 2 miles and hour to 200 miles and hour

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

EX: thinking of a class vote. If the excitatory people with their hands up outvote the inhibitory people with their hands down, the vote passes

Refractory period 

In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

EX: why you can only clap or snap so fast

All or none response

A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing

EX: triggering a mousetrap with a firmer punch won’t make it snap harder or faster

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neurons. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap

Neurotransmitters

A chemical messenger that crosses the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse 

Reuptake

A neurotransmitters reabsorption by sending neurons

EX:some antidepressants partially block the reuptake of mood-enhancing neurotransmitters

Endorphins

“morphine within” ; natural opioid like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

EX: explains the “runners high”, the painkilling effect of acupuncture and the indifference to pain in some severe injuries

agonist

a molecule that increases neurotransmitter actions

antagonist

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitters action

EX: curare, a poison blocks receptor sites on muscles producing paralysis

endocrine system

The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the blood stream 

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

depolarization

Positive ions enter the neuron, making it more susceptible to fire an action potential

Polarization

only negative ions in the neuron, making it less suseptable to fire 

Psychoactive drugs

a chemical substance that alters the brain causing changes in perceptions and moods

EX:alcohol and nicotine

substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions 

EX:alcohol, barbiurates and opioids 

Tolerence

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drugs effect

EX: when it previously only took one or two drinks to get tipsy for a drinker but now it takes four or five the person has developed a tolerance

Addiction

An everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling that continue despite harmful consequences

Withdrawl

The discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing of an addictive drug or behavior

Barbiturates

Drugs that depress the central nervous system actively reducing anxiety and impairing memory and judgement

EX: nembutal, seconal, and amytal

opioids

opium and it’s derivatives; they depress neural activity , temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

EX: heroin, methadone and cocaine

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body function 

EX: caffeine, nicotine and cocaine

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of input

EX:LSD, MDMA and weed

Near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death, often similar to drug induced hallucinations

Alcohol

Depressant;

+initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition 

-depression, memory loss, organ damage, and impaired reactions

Heroin

depressant;

+rush of euphoria, relief from pain

- depressed physiology and loss of natural endorphin function

Caffeine

stimulant;

+increased alertness and wakefulness

-anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high doses

Cocaine

stimulant; 

+rush or euphoria, confidence, energy 

-cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash 

Hindbrain

Consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; it directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance

Midbrain

found atop the brain stem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement and transmits auditory and visual information

Forebrain

Consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus  and hypothalamus manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions and voluntary motor activitie

Brainstem

The central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival function

Medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstems base;controls heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus

The forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem, directs messages to the sensory recieving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

EX: does not receive smell

reticular formation

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters info and plays and important role in controlling arousal

EX: controls alertness. Moruzzi and Horace Magoun discovered in 1949, by electrically stimulating a sleeping cat’s reticular formation, it produced an awake, alert animal

cerebellum

the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem it’s functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance and enabling nonverbal learning and memory 

EX: if your cerebellum is damaged, you would have difficulty walking, keeping you balance or texting a friend 

Limbic system

Neural system located mostly in the forebrain below the cerebellum hemispheres; that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives

EX: can be credited with you enjoying a joke

Amygdala

Two lima-sized neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion

EX: when a normally I'll-tempered animals amygdala is removed they become more mellow

Hypothalamus

A limbic system neural structure lying below the thalamus, it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system and linked to emotion and reward

EX: a misplaced electrode on a rats hypothalamus revealed reward centers which cause the rat to electrically stimulate itself without researchers aid

Hippocampus

A neural center in the limbic system that helps to process explicit memories of facts and events for storage

EX: those who have survived hippocampus brain tumors in childhood struggle to remember new information in adulthood

Cerebrum

The two cerebral hemispheres that contribute 85% of the brain’s weight. Enables our perceiving, thinking and speaking

cerebral cortex

ther intricate fabric of the interconnected neural cells cover the forebrains cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center

EX: scholars who first dissected and labeled the brain used latin and Greek words as graphic descriptions, cortex=bark

Frontal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing. muscle movement, higher order thinking and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgement)

Parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it received sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Temporal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ear; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing

Motor cortex

A cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that causes voluntary movement

EX: discovered by finding that mild electric stimulation to parts of an animals cortex made parts if its body move

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

EX: stimulate a point at the top of the band of tissue and a person may report being touched on the shoulder

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but rather are involved in higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

EX: electrically probing association areas wont produce any observable responses, association areas functions cannot be neatly mapped

prefrontal cortex

forward part of the frontal lobes, enable judgement, planning, social interactions and processing of new memories

neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

EX: researchers have found baby neurons deep in the brains of adult micem birds, monkeys, and humans

corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

A condition resulting from surgery that separates the brains two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

EX:those who underwent surgery were surprisingly healthy, with their personality and intellect intact

Biological psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic,neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological and social-cultural levels of analysis

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views from biological to psychological to social-cultural for analysing any given phenomenon

neuroplacticity

The brains ability to change, especially during childhood by reorganizing, after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

EX: Daniel Kish is able to use echolocation after losing his sight

lesions

Tissue destruction

EX: used in labs to observe different brain functions/injuries

EEG

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brains surface. These waves are measure by electrodes placed on the scalp

MEG

A brain-imaging technique that measure magnetic fields from the brains natural electrical activity

EX: can help researchers to understand how certain tastes influence brain activity

CT scan

A series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

EX: can reveal damage/injury 

PET scan

a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

EX: shows most active areas when doing math problem, looking at images of faces or daydreaming

MRI scan

a technique that uses magnetic field and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue

EX: revealed enlarged ventricles in some people with schizophrenia

fMRI scan

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans 

EX: as a person looks at a scene, for example, the fMRI machine detects blood rushing to the back of the brain which processes visual information 

Excitatory neurotransmitters

A chemical messenger that increases the likelihood of a neuron firing by promoting action potentials

Eugenics

Aimed to promote reproduction among individuals with “desirable” traits and prevent reproduction among those with “undesirable” traits

inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential

Myasthenia Gravis

A chronic autoimmune disorder where the body’s immune system attacks the connection between nerves and muscles, preventing them from communicating properly