Sociology Final Terms

Terms from chapters 2, 11, 12, 14 and 19 in textbook

scientific method

an interpretative framework to increase understanding of societies and social interactions

empirical evidence

evidence from a direct experience

literature review

a review of any existing similar or related studies

hypothesis

an explanation for a phenomenon based on a conjecture about the relationship between the phenomenon and one or more casual factors

independent variable (IV)

the cause of the change

dependent variable (DV)

The effect or the thing that is being changed

reliability

refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced

accuracy

the degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or specification conforms to the correct value or a standard

validity

how well the study measures what it was designed to measure

operational definition

define each concept, or variable, in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it

interpretive framework

this approach doesn’t follow the hypothesis-testing model that seeks to find generalizable results. Instead, an interpretive framework, sometimes referred to as an interpretive perspective, seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, which leads to in-depth knowledge or understanding about the human experience.

primary source data collection

survey, participant observation, ethnography, case study, unobtrusive observations, experiment.

secondary data analysis

use of existing sources

survey

collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire or an interview.

population

people who are the focus of a study

sample

manageable number of subjects who represent the population

random sample

every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study

closed-ended questions

yes-or-no questions or multiple choice answers

quantitative data

data in numerical form that can be counted and statistically analyzed

open-ended questions

require short essay responses

qualitative data

conveyed through words and is harder to organize and tabulate

interview

one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and it is a way of conducting surveys on a topic

field research

gathering primary data from a natural environment

participant observation

researchers join the people and participate in a group's routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context

Ethnography

immersion of the researcher in the natural setting of an entire social community to observe and experience their everyday life and culture

Case study

in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual.

Experiment

investigate relationships to test a hypothesis-- a scientific approach

experimental group

exposed to IV

control group

not introduces to IV

Hawthorne effect

occurs when people change their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study

nonreactive research

meaning that it does not involve direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors.

content analysis

applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as they relate to the study at hand

value neutrality

a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment, during the course of a study and in publishing results

code of ethics

formal guidelines for conducting sociological research

Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
Respect subjects’ rights to privacy and dignity
Protect subject from personal harm
Preserve confidentially
Seek informed consent
Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
Disclose sources of financial support

racial profiling

the use of race alone to determine whether to detain or investigate someone

race

the grouping of human kind based on shared physical or social qualities that can vary from one society to another

social construction of race

descriptions of race like Blumenbach's have fallen into disuse, and the social construction of race is a more accepted way of understanding racial categories. descriptions of race like Blumenbach's have fallen into disuse, and the social construction of race is a more accepted way of understanding racial categories.

ethnicity

based on shared culture—the practices, norms, values, and beliefs of a group that might include shared language, religion, and traditions, among other commonalities.

minority group

“any group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination.”

subordinate group

can be interchanges with the term minority group

dominant group

substituted for the group that represents rulers or is in the majority who can access power and privilege in a given society.

Scapegoat theory

developed initially from Dollard’s (1939) Frustration-Aggression theory, suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group.

intersection theory

originally articulated in 1989 by Kimberlé Crenshaw, which suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes

Culture of prejudice

to the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture. We grow up surrounded by images of stereotypes and casual expressions of racism and prejudice

stereotypes

are oversimplified generalizations about groups of people. Stereotypes can be based on race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation—almost any characteristic

prejudice

beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes someone holds about a group.

discrimination

consists of actions against a group of people. Discrimination can be based on race, ethnicity, age, religion, health, and other categories

White privilege

which is the societal privilege that benefits White people, or those perceived to be White, over non-White people in some societies, including the United States

racism

a stronger type of prejudice and discrimination used to justify inequalities against individuals by maintaining that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others; it is a set of practices used by a racial dominant group to maximize advantages for itself by disadvantaging racial minority groups

Individual or Interpersonal racism

refers to prejudice and discrimination executed by individuals consciously and unconsciously that occurs between individuals.

Systemic racism

also called structural racism or institutional racism, is systems and structures that have procedures or processes that disadvantages racial minority groups

Racial profiling

a type of systemic racism that involves the singling out of racial minorities for differential treatment, usually harsher treatment.

Historical racism

is economic inequality or social disparity caused by past racism

cultural racism

occurs when the assumption of inferiority of one or more races is built into the culture of a society

Colorism

someone believes one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group

Color-Avoidance Racism

an avoidance of racial language by European-Americans that the racism is no longer an issue

racial steering

estate agents direct prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race

redlining

practice of routinely refusing mortgages for households and businesses located in predominately minority communities, while sedimentation of racial inequality describes the intergenerational impact of both practical and legalized racism that limits the abilities of Black people to accumulate wealth

de facto segregation

in Ferguson’s schools, a race-based wealth gap, urban sprawl, and a Black unemployment rate three times that of the White unemployment rate worsened existing racial tensions in Ferguson while also reflecting nationwide racial inequalities

a situation in which legislation did not overtly segregate students by race, but nevertheless school segregation continued.

pluralism

represented by the ideal of the United States as a “salad bowl”: a great mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the flavor of the whole

Assimilation

the process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on the characteristics of the dominant culture

Amalgamation

the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group. Amalgamation creates the classic “melting pot” analogy; unlike the “salad bowl,” in which each culture retains its individuality, the “melting pot” ideal sees the combination of cultures that results in a new culture entirely.

genocide

the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group, is the most toxic intergroup relationship

Expulsion

refers to a subordinate group being forced, by a dominant group, to leave a certain area or country

Segregation

the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions

model minority

stereotype is applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching significant educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without challenging the existing establishment

Sex

physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity.

gender

refers to behaviors, personal traits, and social positions that society attributes to being female or male.

sexuality

capacity to experience sexual feelings and attraction.

sexual orientation

physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male and/or female).

heterosexual

attraction to individuals of the other sex

gender identity

is a person’s deeply held internal perception of one's gender.

transgender

people's sex assigned at birth and their gender identity are not necessarily the same.

Intersex

general term used to describe people whose sex traits, reproductive anatomy, hormones, or chromosomes are different from the usual two ways human bodies develop.

gender dysphoria

diagnostic category in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) that describes individuals who do not identify as the gender that most people would assume they are.

heterosexism

which Herek (1990) suggests is both an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege straight people and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations.

Sexism

prejudiced beliefs that value one sex over another. It varies in its level of severity.

misogyny

the hatred of or, aversion to, or prejudice against women.

doing gender

when people perform tasks or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them

social construction of sexuality

the way in which socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior shape the way people see and experience sexuality

biological determinism

the belief that men and women behave differently due to differences in their biology.

queer theory

an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies Western society’s rigid splitting of gender into specific roles and questions the manner in which we have been taught to think about sexual orientation.

marriage

legally recognized social contract between two people, traditionally based on a sexual relationship and implying a permanence of the union.

family

socially recognized group (usually joined by blood, marriage, cohabitation, or adoption) that forms an emotional connection and serves as an economic unit of society.

family of orientation

the family into which a person is born.

family of procreation

family formed by marriage

cohabitation

when a couple shares a residence but not a marriage

monogamy

when someone is married to only one person at a time.

Polygamy

being married to more than one person at a time,

bilateral descent

Both paternal and maternal ancestors are considered part of one’s family. A patten of tracing kinship

kinship

one's traceable ancestry

Unilateral descent

the tracing of kinship through one parent only

patrilineal

folles the father's line only

matrilineal

follows the mother's side only

ambilineal

follows either the father's or the mother's only dide depending on the situation

patrilocal residence

it is customary for the wife to live with (or near) her husband’s blood relatives (or family of orientation).

matrilocal residences

customary for the husband to live with his wife’s blood relatives (or her family of orientation),

family life cycle

The set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time

1 Marriage Family Childless
2 Procreation Family Children ages 0 to 2.5
3 Preschooler Family Children ages 2.5 to 6
4 School-age Family Children ages 6–13
5 Teenage Family Children ages 13–20
6 Launching Family Children begin to leave home
7 Empty Nest Family “Empty nest”; adult children have left home

family life course

which recognizes the events that occur in the lives of families but views them as parting terms of a fluid course rather than in consecutive stages

nuclear family

referring to married parents and children as the nucleus, or core, of the group.