AP World Unit Two

Sassanid Empire

Last pre-Islamic Persian empire (224-651 CE). Zoroastrian state religion, but also tolerated Christianity and Judaism. Fought Byzantines in constant wars, weakening both before Islamic conquests. Importance: Preserved Persian culture, influenced Islamic administration, and transmitted Greek philosophy/science into Islamic world.

Zoroastrianism

Ancient Persian monotheistic (dualistic) religion founded by Zoroaster. Centered on the struggle between good (Ahura Mazda) and evil (Ahriman). Used fire temples; influenced Judaism, Christianity, and Islam with concepts of heaven, hell, and final judgment.

Mecca

Arabian trade city, birthplace of Muhammad. Location of the Ka'ba; major pilgrimage site even before Islam. Importance: Became spiritual center of Islam (hajj).

Ka'ba

Sacred cube-shaped shrine in Mecca. Pre-Islam: housed pagan idols. Post-Islam: rededicated to Allah by Muhammad. Muslims worldwide face toward it in prayer (qibla).

Five Pillars of Islam

1. Shahada (faith: no god but Allah, Muhammad is prophet) 2. Salat (prayer 5x daily facing Mecca) 3. Zakat (almsgiving, charity) 4. Sawm (fasting during Ramadan) 5. Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca if possible). Core duties binding all Muslims.

Muhammad (570-632 CE)

Prophet of Islam, born in Mecca. Received revelations from Angel Gabriel; recorded in Quran. Preached monotheism, social justice, and submission to Allah. Fled to Medina in Hijra (622 CE), founding Muslim umma.

Abu Bakr

First caliph (632-634 CE) after Muhammad's death. Father-in-law of Muhammad, close companion. Unified Arabian tribes; launched first wave of Islamic conquests.

Medina

City of refuge for Muhammad (Hijra, 622 CE). Site of first Muslim community (umma). Islam became political and religious authority here.

Umma

Community of believers in Islam, transcending tribal or ethnic divisions. Unified under one God and law (Sharia). Key concept in Islamic identity.

Caliphate

Islamic state ruled by a caliph (successor of Muhammad). Combined religious and political authority. Spanned multiple dynasties (Umayyad, Abbasid, etc.).

Khalifa / Caliph

Title for leader of Muslim community after Muhammad. Considered successor (but not prophet). Debate over legitimacy led to Sunni-Shia split.

Quran

Holy book of Islam, believed to be word of God revealed to Muhammad. Written in Arabic; central to worship, law, and theology. Emphasizes monotheism, morality, charity, and accountability.

Imam

In Sunni Islam: prayer leader at mosque. In Shia Islam: divinely guided successor to Muhammad. Spiritual and political leader of community.

Ulama

Scholars of Islamic law, theology, and tradition. Preserved and interpreted Quran and Hadith. Influential in courts, education, and daily religious life.

Shiites (Shia)

Believed leadership should stay within Muhammad's family (Ali and descendants). Emphasize role of Imams as divinely inspired. Minority branch but dominant in Iran and parts of Iraq.

Sunnis

Majority branch of Islam. Believe caliphs should be chosen by consensus (community). Focus on traditions of Muhammad (Sunna).

Umayyad Caliphate

First hereditary dynasty of caliphs, capital at Damascus. Expanded Islam into North Africa, Spain, and Central Asia. Criticized for being worldly; overthrown by Abbasids.

Abbasid Caliphate

Golden Age of Islam. Capital: Baghdad. Flourished in science, philosophy, translation, and trade. Declined due to fragmentation and invasions (Mongols 1258).

Harun al-Rashid

Abbasid caliph during height of Islamic Golden Age. Patron of arts, science, literature. Featured in 'Arabian Nights' stories.

House of Wisdom

Intellectual center during Abbasid rule. Scholars translated Greek, Persian, Indian texts into Arabic. Advanced medicine, astronomy, philosophy, mathematics.

Madrasas

Islamic religious schools for higher education. Taught Quran, Hadith, law (fiqh), logic, sometimes science. Spread throughout Islamic world.

Astrolabe

Navigational instrument used to calculate position using stars. Perfected by Muslims, crucial for navigation and determining qibla.

Translation Movement

8th-10th centuries in Abbasid Baghdad. Translated Greek, Persian, Indian works into Arabic. Preserved classical knowledge; influenced Europe via Spain.

Mamluk Sultanate

Slave-soldier dynasty in Egypt. Stopped Mongols at Ain Jalut (1260). Ruled until defeated by Ottomans.

Christian Crusades

Series of European Christian military expeditions to reclaim Holy Land from Muslims. Initiated by Pope Urban II. Created lasting cultural, religious conflict but also exchange.

Sharia

Islamic law derived from Quran, Hadith, consensus, and analogy. Covers moral, legal, social, economic aspects of life.

Hadith

Sayings and actions of Muhammad. Second only to Quran in authority. Basis for Sharia and Islamic tradition.

Charlemagne

King of the Franks, crowned 'Emperor of the Romans' in 800 by Pope Leo III. Founded Carolingian Empire. Promoted Christianity, education, and centralized rule.

Medieval

Period in European history from c. 500-1500 CE. Divided into Early, High, and Late Middle Ages. Characterized by feudalism, church dominance, and gradual urban revival.

Byzantine Empire

Eastern Roman Empire (330-1453 CE). Capital: Constantinople. Preserved Roman law, Greek culture, and Orthodox Christianity.

Caesaropapism

System where emperor also controls church. Practiced in Byzantine Empire. Created tension with Roman papacy.

Kievan Russia

First Russian state (9th-13th centuries). Converted to Orthodox Christianity under Prince Vladimir (988). Influenced by Byzantine culture.

Emperor Alexius I

Byzantine emperor who appealed to Pope for help vs. Turks. His call sparked the First Crusade.

Constantinople

Capital of Byzantine Empire, wealthy trade hub. Conquered by Fourth Crusade (1204) and Ottomans (1453).

Cyrillic Alphabet

Created by Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius. Adapted Greek script to Slavic languages. Used in Russia, Balkans, Eastern Europe.

Carolingian Empire

Empire under Charlemagne and successors. Promoted learning (Carolingian Renaissance). Fell apart after his death, leading to feudalism.

Vikings

Norse seafarers from Scandinavia (8th-11th centuries). Raided, traded, and settled across Europe. Founded Normandy, influenced Russia, reached North America.

Manorial System

Economic system of medieval Europe. Lords owned estates, peasants (serfs) worked land. Self-sufficient agricultural units.

Feudalism

Political system of loyalty and landholding. Lords granted land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for service.

Vassal

Noble who pledged loyalty and service to a lord.

Papacy / Pope

Spiritual leader of Roman Catholic Church.

Holy Roman Empire

Loose federation of states in central Europe (962-1806).

Investiture Controversy (11th-12th c.)

Conflict between popes and emperors over who could appoint bishops.

Thomas à Becket (1119-1170)

Archbishop of Canterbury killed after conflict with King Henry II of England over church rights.

Monasticism

Religious way of life with vows of poverty, chastity, obedience.

Latin West

Western Europe under Roman Catholic influence.

Three-Field System

Agricultural innovation rotating crops across three fields.

Waterwheel & Windmills

Harnessed water/wind power for grinding grain, pumping, industry.

Hanseatic League

Alliance of northern European trading cities (13th-17th c.).

Renaissance (14th-17th c.)

Cultural revival of art, science, humanism.

Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE)

Reunified China after centuries of division.

Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE)

Golden age of Chinese culture and empire.

Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE)

Known for economic revolution, urbanization, innovation.

Grand Canal (China)

Linked northern and southern China (Yellow & Yangtze rivers).

Neo-Confucianism

Revival of Confucian philosophy blended with Buddhism/Daoism.

Chinese Examination System

Civil service exams based on Confucian classics.

Three Korean Kingdoms

Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla (1st c. BCE-7th c. CE).

Shamanism

Indigenous Korean religious practice.

Yamato Rulers (Japan)

First ruling clan of Japan.

Fujiwara Clan (Japan)

Aristocratic family dominating politics (9th-11th centuries).

Kamakura Shogunate (1185-1333 CE)

First shogunate (military government) in Japan.

Champa Rice

Fast-ripening rice from Vietnam.

Junk

Large Chinese sailing ships.

Magnetic Compass

Chinese invention for navigation.

Woodblock Printing

Technique of printing text/images by carving into wood.

Flying Money

Early Chinese paper money / credit system.

Gunpowder

Chinese invention (9th century) used for fireworks, then weapons.