criminology final

What is the main question control theories try to answer?

Why people do not commit crime, rather than why they do.

What is Social Bond Theory?

A theory by Travis Hirschi arguing that crime occurs when an individual’s bonds to society are weak or broken.

Who developed Social Bond Theory and when?

Travis Hirschi, 1969 (Causes of Delinquency).

What are the four elements of the social bond?

Attachment, Commitment, Involvement, and Belief.

What is attachment in Social Bond Theory?

Emotional and social ties to others and institutions that discourage deviance.

Why is parental attachment especially important according to Hirschi?

Strong parental attachment is the most significant deterrent to delinquency.

What is commitment in Social Bond Theory?

Investment in conventional goals and activities that create “stakes in conformity.”

What does “stakes in conformity” mean?

The idea that people avoid crime because they have too much to lose.

What is involvement in Social Bond Theory?

Participation in conventional activities that limits time and opportunity for crime.

What is belief in Social Bond Theory?

Acceptance of societal rules, norms, and laws as legitimate.

What happens when social bonds weaken?

The likelihood of delinquency increases.

What are policy implications of Social Bond Theory?

Parenting programs, after-school programs, community involvement.

What is Self-Control Theory?

A theory by Gottfredson and Hirschi stating that low self-control is the primary cause of crime.

How is self-control defined?

The ability to restrain impulses and delay gratification.

What are characteristics of low self-control?

Impulsivity, risk-taking, preference for immediate gratification, low frustration tolerance.

What are characteristics of high self-control?

Planning, patience, delayed gratification, cautious decision-making.

When does self-control develop according to the theory?

Early childhood (by around age 10).

What is the “stability thesis”?

The idea that self-control remains relatively stable across the life course.

What is the Parenting Thesis?

Low self-control results from ineffective parenting (lack of supervision, discipline, attachment).

What is the age–crime curve?

Crime increases in adolescence and declines with age.

One major criticism of Self-Control Theory?

It ignores social change and peer influence and may be circular.

What are Techniques of Neutralization?

Justifications people use to neutralize moral guilt and commit deviance.

Who developed Techniques of Neutralization?

Sykes and Matza (1957).

What is Denial of Responsibility?

Claiming the act was beyond one’s control (“I had no choice”).

What is Denial of Injury?

Arguing that no real harm was done.

What is Denial of Victim?

Claiming the victim deserved the harm.

What is Condemnation of the Condemners?

Shifting blame onto authorities or critics.

What is Appeal to Higher Loyalties?

Justifying crime as serving a more important cause or relationship.

Why are neutralization techniques important?

They allow people to commit crime without rejecting societal norms.

What is Labeling Theory?

A theory that deviance is created through social reaction and labeling, not the act itself.

Who contributed to the foundations of Labeling Theory?

W.I. Thomas and Robert K. Merton.

What is the “definition of the situation”?

The idea that situations defined as real have real consequences.

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

When labels influence behavior in ways that cause the label to come true.

How do labels affect behavior?

They shape identity, limit opportunities, and increase future deviance.

What did Chambliss’ Saints and Roughnecks study show?

hat class and perception influence how deviance is labeled and punished.

Why were the Saints treated leniently?

hey were middle-class, respected, and their deviance was hidden.

Why were the Roughnecks punished more harshly?

Their deviance was visible and they lacked social privilege.

what was the long-term effect of labeling? roughnecks

Labels reinforced life trajectories (college vs. criminal justice involvement).

What is Reintegrative Shaming?

A theory by Braithwaite emphasizing shame followed by forgiveness and reintegration.

How does stigmatization differ from reintegration?

Stigmatization labels the person; reintegration condemns the behavior only.

What is Rational Choice Theory?

A theory that crime results from calculated decisions weighing costs and benefits.

What school of thought influenced Rational Choice Theory?

The Classical School (Beccaria and Bentham).

What is expected utility?

The anticipated benefits of crime minus the expected costs.

What factors influence criminal decision-making?

Risk of punishment, severity of punishment, reward, moral costs.

One criticism of Rational Choice Theory?

Not all crime is rational or planned.

What are the three elements of Routine Activities Theory?

Motivated offender, suitable target, absence of capable guardians.

What does Routine Activities Theory focus on?

Opportunity and situational factors, not offender motivation.

What is human trafficking?

Exploitation involving force, fraud, or coercion.

Why are minors always considered trafficking victims?

force, fraud, or coercion is not required for minors.

What is force in trafficking?

Physical violence, restraint, confinement.

What is fraud in trafficking?

False promises about jobs, love, or a better life.

What is coercion in trafficking?

Threats, psychological manipulation, document confiscation.

What is the Loverboy recruitment model?

Traffickers use romantic relationships to exploit victims.

Why do trafficking victims often not come forward?

Fear, distrust of police, misidentification as criminals.

What is the No Punishment Principle?

Victims should not be punished for crimes resulting from trafficking.

What is white-collar crime?

Nonviolent crime committed by individuals of respectability during their occupation.

Who coined the term white-collar crime?

Edwin Sutherland.

Why did Sutherland criticize criminology?

It focused too heavily on street crime.

Examples of white-collar crime discussed in class?

Ford Pinto, Bernie Madoff, Purdue Pharma, Theranos.

What theories explain white-collar crime?

Rational choice, neutralization, weak regulation, corporate culture.

What is genocide?

Acts committed with intent to destroy a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group.

Who coined the term genocide?

Raphael Lemkin.

When was genocide first recognized as a crime?

1948 UN Genocide Convention.

What institutions prosecute genocide?

International Criminal Court (ICC) and International Court of Justice (ICJ).

What is dehumanization?

Stripping a group of humanity to justify violence.

How were neutralization techniques used in genocide?

Perpetrators denied responsibility, injury, victims, and appealed to authority.

How is the U.S. criminal justice system linked to racism?

Roots in slave patrols, Jim Crow laws, and structural inequality.

How does media influence perceptions of crime?

It exaggerates crime and reinforces racial stereotypes.

What is dog whistle politics?

Coded language that signals racial bias without explicit racism.

Examples of dog whistle rhetoric?

“Law and order,” “tough on crime.”

How do perceptions of crime compare to actual crime trends?

Perceptions often overestimate crime despite declining rates.

Which theories apply to Trafficked in America?

Human trafficking theory, labeling theory, control theory, policy failure.

Which theories apply to Opioids, Inc.?

White-collar crime, rational choice, neutralization, regulatory failure.