thinking, judgement, and decision making - AP Psychology

What is the definition of thinking?\n\n

The process of manipulating information within the brain.\n\n

What are the two types of mental representations?

1. Analogical: Mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects (e.g., images).\n\n2. Symbolic: Abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical features of objects (e.g., words or symbols).

What are concepts and why are they useful?\n\n

Mental categories used to group objects, events, or relations. They are useful because they help organize information and allow for predictions.\n\n

Define categorization and hierarchies.

• Categorization: The process of grouping things based on shared properties

• Hierarchy: A system of categorization that moves from a broad level to a more specific level

What is the Defining Attribute Model and what are its flaws?

A checklist model where an object must have a specific set of features to be part of a category.

Its flaws include.

Fuzzy boundaries: Real-world concepts often don't have clear-cut boundaries

Atypical members: It can misclassify members that do not perfectly fit the checklist (e.g., penguins in the 'bird' category).

How does the Prototype Model differ from the Defining Attribute Model?\n\n

The Prototype Model suggests that within each category, there is a \"best example\" (prototype). Categorization is done by comparing new items to this one prototype, which is faster than checking a list of attributes.\n\n

What is a flaw of the Prototype Model?\n\n

Atypical members of a category may be misclassified if they are too different from the prototype.\n\n

What is the Exemplar (Family Resemblance) Model?\n\n

This model suggests that categorization is done by comparing a new item to all previously stored examples (exemplars) of that category. This approach is more flexible than the prototype model.\n\n

How are items processed within a category according to these models?\n\n

Items in a category are compared to either a prototype (one best example) or an exemplar (collection of many examples).\n\n

What are schemas?\n\n

Mental frameworks or structures that help us organize and interpret information about ideas, people, or situations.\n\n

What are the drawbacks of using schemas?\n\n

They can lead to social bias, the reinforcement of stereotypes, and the misremembering of details to fit the schema.\n\n

Compare assimilation and accommodation.

• Assimilation: Fitting new information into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Changing an existing schema to incorporate new, conflicting information.

Define reasoning, deductive reasoning, and inductive reasoning.\n\n

• Reasoning: Evaluating information, arguments, and beliefs to reach a conclusion.

• Deductive: Reasoning from a general rule to specific cases

• Inductive: Reasoning from specific observations to a general rule.

Which type of reasoning is most common in everyday life?\n\n

Inductive reasoning.\n\n

Compare normative and descriptive decision models.\n\n

• Normative: Describes how we should make decisions (rational/optimal).\n\n- Descriptive: Describes how we actually make decisions (often irrational).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What are heuristics?\n\n

Mental shortcuts or \"rules of thumb\" used to reduce the amount of thinking needed to make decisions.\n\n

Define confirmation bias and hindsight bias.\n\n

• Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out or notice information that supports your existing beliefs.\n\n- Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after an outcome is known, that one would have predicted it (\\"knew it all along\\").\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is the Representativeness Heuristic?\n\n

Judging the likelihood of an item belonging to a category based on how similar it is to the prototype of that category.\n\n

What is the Availability Heuristic?\n\n

Judging the probability of an event based on how easily examples come to mind (ease of recall).\n\n

What are dread risks?\n\n

The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of rare but highly vivid or scary events (e.g., plane crashes).\n\n

Define frequency illusion and salience bias.\n\n

• Frequency Illusion: Noticing something everywhere once you have recently learned about it.\n\n- Salience Bias: Vivid or emotionally striking information dominates our judgment over more relevant but less striking data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is anchoring and adjustment?\n\n

A heuristic where the first piece of information encountered (the anchor) exerts an outsized influence on subsequent judgments.\n\n

Define apophenia, clustering, and pareidolia.\n\n

• Apophenia: Seeing meaningful patterns in random data.\n\n- Clustering: Perceiving random clusters in data as being non-random or intentional.\n\n- Pareidolia: Specifically seeing faces or familiar objects in inanimate things.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Explain egocentrism, false consensus, false uniqueness, Barnum effect, and illusion of control.\n\n

• Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing a situation from another's point of view.\n\n- False Consensus: Thinking everyone agrees with your opinion.\n\n- False Uniqueness: Thinking your talents or positive traits are more unique than they are.\n\n- Barnum Effect: Believing vague, general descriptions apply specifically to you (e.g., horoscopes).\n\n- Illusion of Control: Overestimating one's influence over random events.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Explain framing, prospect theory, loss aversion, sunk cost, and gambler’s fallacy.\n\n

• Framing: How information is presented changes the choice made.\n\n- Prospect Theory: The idea that decisions are influenced by how the outcome is framed as a gain or loss.\n\n- Loss Aversion: The tendency to prefer avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains.\n\n- Sunk Cost: Continuing a behavior or investment because of past resources spent, even if it is no longer rational.\n\n- Gambler’s Fallacy: The belief that past random outcomes influence the probability of future independent events.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What are anticipated emotion and affective forecasting?\n\n

• Anticipated Emotion: Using predicted future feelings to influence current choices.\n\n- Affective Forecasting: The process of predicting how we will feel in the future; notably, humans are poor at predicting the duration and intensity of these feelings.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is the difference between satisficers and maximizers?\n\n

• Satisficers: People who choose an option that is \"good enough\" and are generally happier.\n\n- Maximizers: People who seek the absolute best possible choice, often leading to more regret and less satisfaction.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is the definition of problem solving?\n\n

Moving from a current state to a goal state by overcoming obstacles.\n\n

What are algorithms and what are their pros and cons?\n\n

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution. They are highly accurate but can be very slow.\n\n

How do heuristics and subgoals help in problem solving?\n\n

• Heuristics: Fast mental shortcuts that often work but don't guarantee a solution.\n\n- Subgoals: Breaking a complex task into smaller, manageable parts.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is restructuring?\n\n

Representing a problem in a new way to facilitate a solution.\n\n

How are analogies used in problem solving?\n\n

Using a solution that worked for a previous, similar problem to solve a current one.\n\n

Define mental set, fixation, and functional fixedness.\n\n

• Mental Set: Persisting in using problem-solving strategies that worked in the past.\n\n- Fixation: Getting stuck on one way of looking at a problem.\n\n- Functional Fixedness: The inability to see an object as having a function other than its typical one.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is creativity and its 5 components?\n\n

The ability to produce work that is both novel and useful. Components include:\n\n1. Expertise\n\n2. Imaginative thinking skills\n\n3. Venturesome personality\n\n4. Intrinsic motivation\n\n5. Supportive environment\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is language?\n\n

A system of communication using sounds and symbols according to grammatical rules.\n\n

Define morphemes and phonemes.\n\n

• Morpheme: The smallest unit of language that carries meaning.\n\n- Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound in a language.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is the role of the vocal cords and oral cavity in speech?\n\n

• Vocal Cords: The source of voice, located in the larynx.\n\n- Oral Cavity: The space in the mouth used to shape and resonance sounds.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is the difference between syntax and semantics?\n\n

• Syntax: Rules governing the order of words in sentences.\n\n- Semantics: The meaning derived from words and sentences.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis and is there evidence against it?\n\n

The idea that language determines or influences thought. Evidence against it includes the fact that people can understand concepts (like colors) for which their language may not have a specific word.\n\n

What is joint attention?\n\n

A social-communicative skill where two people focus on the same object, helping infants learn the names of things.\n\n

What occurs during the prelinguistic phase?\n\n

Developmental stages including cooing, babbling, and the use of gestures before actual words are spoken.\n\n

How do babies discriminate between sounds?\n\n

Up to 6 months, infants can discriminate all phonemes of any human language; after that, they specialize to only notice the phonemes of their native language.\n\n

Define overextension and holophrases.\n\n

• Overextension: Using a word too broadly (e.g., calling all 4-legged animals \"dog\").\n\n- Holophrase: Using a single word to represent a whole sentence or complex idea.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is telegraphic speech?\n\n

2-word sentences that include only the most essential words (e.g., \"More milk\").\n\n

What is overgeneralization (overregularization)?\n\n

Applying grammatical rules too broadly, such as adding \"-ed\" to irregular verbs (e.g., saying \"runned\" instead of \"ran\").\n\n

Describe Skinner’s theory of language and its criticisms.\n\n

Skinner argued language is learned through reinforcement. Criticisms include:\n\n1. Children generate novel sentences they've never heard.\n\n2. Overregularization occurs despite no parental model.\n\n3. The speed of acquisition is too fast for simple reinforcement.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is Noam Chomsky’s theory of Universal Grammar?\n\n

The belief that the capacity for language is innate and that all human languages share a common underlying structure. Children across cultures reach the same linguistic milestones at roughly the same time.\n\n

Compare surface structure and deep structure.\n\n

• Surface: The literal ordering of words in a sentence.\n\n- Deep: The underlying meaning of a sentence.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?\n\n

A hypothetical neural mechanism proposed by Chomsky that provides children with an innate ability to learn language.\n\n

How does signed language acquisition compare to spoken language?\n\n

Deaf children acquire signed language in the same stages and at the same rate as hearing children acquire spoken language, suggesting innate linguistic rules.\n\n

Define Creole and Pidgin and the role children play.\n\n

• Pidgin: A simplified mixture of languages used for basic communication.\n\n- Creole: A stable, full language that evolves from a pidgin. Children are the ones who transform pidgins into creoles by applying grammatical rules.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is the critical period for language?\n\n

An early window in development where language exposure is essential. If missed, severe deficits in language ability usually occur.\n\n

Can non-human animals learn language?\n\n

While animals can learn many symbols and signs, their main stumbling block is the inability to master complex grammar and syntax.\n\n

Compare phonics and whole-language instruction.\n\n

• Phonics: Focuses on the relationship between sounds and letters (supported by empirical evidence).\n\n- Whole-language: Focuses on learning the meaning of whole words/sentences (less empirical support).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Define intelligence and Spearman’s g.\n\n

• Intelligence: The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.\n\n- g factor: General intelligence, an underlying factor that contributes to performance on any intellectual task.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Describe Cattell’s fluid vs. crystallized intelligence.\n\n

• Fluid: The capacity to reason and solve new, abstract problems (declines with age).\n\n- Crystallized: Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills (increases or stays stable with age).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What are Gardner’s 8 Intelligences and their criticisms?\n\n

Linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Criticisms include difficulty in measurement and overlap between categories.\n\n

Define Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory.\n\n

Intelligence consists of three components:\n\n1. Analytical: Academic problem solving.\n\n2. Creative: Adaptability to new situations.\n\n3. Practical: \"Street smarts\" and everyday tasks.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is Threshold Theory?\n\n

The idea that a certain level of intelligence (IQ \approx 120) is necessary for high creativity, but beyond that, intelligence does not predict creativity.\n\n

What are the 4 components of Emotional Intelligence (MEIS)?\n\n

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.\n\n

What was the Marshmallow Experiment and its conclusion?\n\n

A test of delayed gratification in children. Those who could wait for a second marshmallow generally had better life outcomes (academic, social, and health) later in life.\n\n

What are the criticisms of emotional intelligence?\n\n

It is difficult to measure objectively and often overlaps with existing personality traits like agreeableness or emotional stability.\n\n

How is intelligence related to brain physiology?\n\n

Faster neural processing speeds are correlated with higher IQ. Additionally, the size of certain brain regions (like the frontal and parietal lobes) is positively correlated with intelligence scores.\n\n

What environmental factors influence intelligence?\n\n

Factors include quality of education, cultural exposure, socioeconomic status (poverty), and nutrition.\n\n

What is the Flynn Effect?\n\n

The observed rise in average IQ scores worldwide over the last several generations.\n\n

Define stereotype threat.\n\n

A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, which causes anxiety and results in lower performance.\n\n

What is mental age?\n\n

The chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance on an intelligence test.\n\n

Define Psychometrics, Achievement, and Aptitude.\n\n

• Psychometrics: The specialized study of psychological measurement.\n\n- Achievement: Tests that measure what you have already learned.\n\n- Aptitude: Tests designed to predict your potential for future learning or performance.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What is the WAIS?\n\n

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, the most widely used intelligence test for adults.\n\n

Define standardization and standard scores.\n\n

• Standardization: Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.\n\n- Standard Score (Z-score): Indicates how many standard deviations an element is from the mean.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Define the types of reliability: test-retest, split-half, and alternate form.\n\n

• Test-retest: Getting similar results when the same person takes the test twice.\n\n- Split-half: Comparing the performance on one half of the test to the other half.\n\n- Alternate form: Getting similar results when using two different versions of the same test.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Define the types of validity: face, content, predictive, and construct.\n\n

• Face: Does it look like it measures what it's supposed to?\n\n- Content: Does it sample the behavior that is of interest?\n\n- Predictive: Does it successfully predict the behavior it is designed to predict?\n\n- Construct: Does it accurately measure the theoretical construct (e.g., intelligence) it claims to?\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

What are the cultural criticisms of intelligence testing?\n\n

Tests may be biased toward Western culture, higher socioeconomic status, and specific language fluencies, potentially penalizing those from different backgrounds.\n\n

FRQ 1 : Baby Language Terms

• Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning (e.g., prefixes, suffixes, root words).

• Overextension: Using one word broadly for related objects (e.g., calling all animals a \"dog\").

• Holophrases: Single words that express a complete idea, like saying \"milk\" to mean \"I want milk.\

• Telegraphic speech: Early speech that uses mostly nouns and verbs while omitting grammar (e.g., \"want cookie\").

• Overregularization: Applying grammatical rules too broadly (e.g., saying \"goed\" instead of \"went\").

FRQ 2 : Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

An innate biological mechanism proposed by Noam Chomsky that helps children learn language. It explains why they acquire language quickly and learn grammatical rules without explicit instruction, supporting the idea of universal grammar.

FRQ 3 : B.F. Skinner and Criticisms

Skinner argued that language is learned through operant conditioning (imitation and reinforcement).

Criticisms include that children produce novel sentences they've never heard. Parents rarely correct grammar, yet children still learn. Language develops too rapidly for reinforcement alone to explain.

FRQ 4 : Concept Models

• Defining Attribute Model: Concepts are defined by a set of necessary features; criticized for fuzzy boundaries and violation by many members.\n- Exemplar (Family Resemblance) Model: Categorization based on stored examples; more flexible and accurate for real-life situations.

FRQ 5 : Framing and Sunk Cost Fallacy

Framing is how choices are influenced by presentation rather than facts. The sunk cost fallacy is continuing a behavior due to past investments. They are related because people frame quitting as a \"loss,\" which feels worse than continuing even when irrational.

FRQ 6 : Executive Function Systems

• Contention Scheduling: Controls automatic and habitual behaviors triggered by the environment.\n- Supervisory Attentional System (SAS): Responsible for effortful, conscious decision-making. Damage can cause Environmental Dependency Syndrome (behavior driven automatically by environment cues).

FRQ 7 : Marshmallow Experiment

Walter Mischel's study on delay of gratification. Children waiting for larger rewards showed greater self-control, demonstrating a link between self-regulation and executive functioning in decision-making.