AP Psychology: Unit 1

Approaches & Research Methods

behavioral approach

how we learn observable responses

neurobiological approach

study the brain's physical structures

cognitive approach

how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

evolutionary approach

how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

humanist approach

How we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment

psychoanalytic approach

how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

sociocultural approach

how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

psychaitry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

introspection

The process of examining one's own thoughts, feelings, and experiences

clinical psychologist

an expert in the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental illness and psychological problems for individuals, groups, and organizations

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologist

study the relationship between people and their working environments

school psychologists

are involved in the assessment of and intervention for children in educational settings

forensic psychologists

apply psychology's principles and methods in the criminal justice system (legal matters)

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

quantitative vs. qualitative measures

Quantitative measures involve numerical data and is fixed, while qualitative measures involve non-numerical data such as descriptions that are subjective and unique

clinical research

a branch of medical research that studies people to understand health and disease, and to find new and better ways to detect, diagnose, treat, and prevent illness

structured interviews

a research or clinical assessment method that uses a fixed, predetermined set of questions asked in a specific order, minimizing interviewer discretion and maximizing standardization

social desirability bias

the tendency for individuals to give answers to surveys or interviews that present them in a more favorable light, rather than providing their true thoughts or behaviors

meta-analysis

statistical method that combines results from multiple studies

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1)

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

the group that is exposed to the treatment in an experiment

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

independent variable

the thing that is being manipulated in an experiment; the variable whose effect is being studied

dependent variable

the variable that may change in response to manipulations; the outcome factor

confounding variable/third variable problem

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

self-report bias

The tendency for people to provide inaccurate or incomplete information about their own behaviors, attitudes, or experiences.

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

coercion

the practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats

Clever Hans Effect

the researcher unconsciously guides the subject's response

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

nature

our genetics determine our behavior

nurture

our environment, upbringing, and experiences determine our behavior

confirmation bias

the tendency to favor information that confirms your existing beliefs while downplaying evidence that contradicts them

overconfidence

the psychological tendency to overestimate one's own abilities, knowledge, or the accuracy of one's beliefs

correlational research

examines the relationship between two or more variables

sampling bias

a type of survey bias that occurs when a research study does not use a representative sample of a target population

non-response bias

the people who answer a survey or study aren't a good reflection of everyone you wanted to answer, because the non-responders have different traits

positive correlation

as one variable increases, the other increases as well

negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

median

a measure of central tendency representing the middle value in a dataset when arranged in order, meaning 50% of scores fall above it and 50% below, making it useful for skewed data or data with extreme outliers

mean

the arithmetic average, a statistical measure of central tendency calculated by summing all values in a dataset and dividing by the number of values

mode

a statistical measure for the most frequent score in a dataset

negatively skewed distribution

a set of data where most scores are high, and there are a few unusually low scores that create a long tail on the left side of the graph

positively skewed distribution

a distribution where most scores are clustered at the low end, but a few extremely high scores pull the mean to the right

regression towards the mean

a statistical phenomenon where extreme scores on a first measurement are followed by scores that are closer to the average on a second measurement

range

a basic statistic showing the spread of data, calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a dataset, indicating the total difference between extremes

standard deviation

a single number showing how spread out scores are from the average

normal distribution

a symmetrical, bell-shaped pattern of data where most values cluster around the average, and fewer values are found at the extremes

percentile

a percentile shows where an individual's score falls compared to a larger group, indicating the percentage of people scoring below them

bimodal distribution

a probability distribution with two distinct peaks, indicating the presence of two prevalent subgroups within a dataset

statistical significance

a result is likely not due to random chance, but rather to a real effect or relationship

t test

a statistical tool that compares the average of two groups or a single group to a known value, determining if the difference is genuinely significant or just due to random chance

p value

a number between 0 and 1 that tells you how statistically significant a result is; a p value less than 0.05 means that they are statistically significant

type I error (false positive)

detecting an effect that is not present

type II error (false negative)

failing to detect an effect that is present

deception

if the participants are deceived in any way about the nature of the study (it must not be so extreme that it invalidates the informed consent)

confidentiality

the identity of participants in a research study must not be revealed publicly