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Memory
The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Encoding
The process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
Storage
The process of retaining encoded information over time.
Retrieval
The process of getting information out of memory storage.
Sensory Memory
The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Short-Term Memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten.
Long-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory)
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and 'declare.'
Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory)
Retention independent of conscious recollection. Involves skills and conditioned responses.
Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Automatic Processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Spacing Effect
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
Testing Effect
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.
Shallow Processing
Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
Deep Processing
Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
Flashbulb Memory
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Recognition
A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
Relearning
A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
Priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
Mood-Congruent Memory
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
Serial Position Effect
Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first items (primacy effect) in a list.
Anterograde Amnesia
An inability to form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia
An inability to retrieve information from one's past.
Proactive Interference
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
Repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Misinformation Effect
When misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event.
Source Amnesia (Source Misattribution)
Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
Tip of the Tongue effect
state in which one cannot quite recall a familiar word but can recall words of similar form and meaning
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