Observational techniques

Observations

• These provide psychologists with a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them. They also allow researchers to study observable behaviour within a natural or controlled setting. This method allows a researcher the flexibility to study complex interactions between variables

• Often used for assessing the DV

Naturalistic observation

• Take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur. All aspects of the environment are free to vary. I.e., it would not make sense to study how senior management and employees in a particular factory interact by dragging the whole of the workforce into an artificial lab setting, instead studying 'interaction' in a factory setting is much better

Controlled observation

• It is sometimes useful to control certain aspects of the research situation, so this type of observation may be preferred. Ainsworth made use of this type of observation as part of her Strange Situation studies

Covert observations

• Those in which participants are unaware they are the focus of study and their behaviour is observed in secret, e.g. from across a room or from a balcony. Such behaviour must be public and happening anyway if the observation is to be ethical

Overt observations

• Where participants know their behaviour is being observed and have given their informal consent beforehand

Participant observations

• When the observer becomes part of the group they are studying. For instance, a study of factory workers and management might have been improved through the researcher actually joining the workforce to produce a first-hand account

Non-participant observations

• When the researcher remains separate from those they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner. May often be impractical or impossible to join particular groups so that this type of observation is the only option

Evaluation of all observations: Strengths

• Ability to capture what people actually do, which may be unexpected behaviour. People often do not act the same as they say they would. So, observational methods are useful because they give special insight into behaviour

Evaluation of all observations: Weaknesses

• Great risk of observer bias. This may be reduced by using more than one observer

• Observational studies cannot demonstrate causal relationships- though observational techniques may be used in experiments and aid in detecting cause-and-effect relationships

Evaluation of naturalistic observations: Strengths

• Tend to have high external validity as findings can often be generalised to everyday life. This is because the behaviour is studied within the environment where it would normally occur

Evaluation of naturalistic observations: Weaknesses

• The lack of control over the research situation makes replication of the investigation difficult. There may also be many uncontrolled confounding/extraneous variables that make it more difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour

Evaluation of controlled observations: Weaknesses

• May produce findings that cannot be as readily applied to everyday life

Evaluation of controlled observations: Strengths

• Confounding/extraneous variables may be less of a factor so replication of the observation becomes easier

Evaluation of covert observations: Strengths

• The fact that participants do not know they are being watched removes the problem of demand characteristics and ensures any observed behaviour will be natural. This increases the internal validity of the data gathered

Evaluation of covert observations: Weaknesses

• The ethics of these studies may be questioned as people, even in public, may not wish to have their behaviours observed and noted down (right to privacy)

Evaluation of overt observations: Strengths

• More ethically acceptable

Evaluation of overt observations: Weaknesses

• The knowledge participants have that they are being observed may act as a significant influence on their behaviour

Evaluation of participant observations: Strengths

• The researcher can experience the situation as the participants do, giving them increased insight into the lives of the people being studied. This may increase the external validity of the findings.

Evaluation of participant observations: Weaknesses

• The researcher may come to identity too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity. Some researchers refer to this as adopting a local lifestyle when the line between being a researcher and being a participant becomes blurred

Evaluation of non-participant observations: Strengths

• Allow the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from their participants so there is less danger of them adopting a local lifestyle

Evaluation of non-participant observations: Weaknesses

• May lose the valuable insight to be gained in a participant observation as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying