Chapter 13: Reformations and Religious Wars

Who painted this? What is the significance?

Painted by Francois Bunel which shows Catholic military forces, including friars, parading through one town affected by the French religious wars that followed the reformation.

What were some of the general criticisms that the Roman Catholic Church had placed on by Christian Humanists, urban residents, villagers, etc? Give a specific example about a pope:

Papal tax collection methods were attacked orally and in print. Some groups argued that certain doctrines taught were incorrect.

The 15th century popes’ concentration on artistic patronage and building up family power was in effect too, which didn’t help matters. (EX: You had Pope Leo X who was a Medici)

Obviously, there was a lot of tension between people and the Roman Catholic Church before Lutheranism. Give an example:

Individuals belived that some of the doctrines taught by these popes, priests, etc were incorrect. There were many small reforms that took place and some had success, like in Bohemia, where people led to the formation of a church independent of the Roman Catholic Church.

There were three problems critics of the Roman Catholic Church pointed out. List them then give an example in regard to pluralism and absenteeism…

clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, and clerical pluralism (holding more than one office)

Absenteeism: Many priests, munks, and nuns would rarely visit their officers or preform spiritual responsibilities from those offices. Instead, they would hire a poor priest to do it for them.

Pluralism: Many Italian officials in the papal curia (pope’s court in Rome) held benefices in England, Spain, and Germany. The MONEY from there would pay for their salaries.

Discuss Martin Luther, specifically his background as a religious figure…

Originally prepared for a legal career, a religious calling led him to join the Augustinian Friars, a religious order where members would preach to the poor. He was ordained as a priest in 1507 but was worried about sin and his ability to meet God’s demands.

He studied Saint Paul’s letters in the New Testament and understood that “faith alone, grace alone, Scripture alone” was key. That salvation and justificiation came through faith.

What was something that Pope Leo X did during Luther’s engagement in scholarly reflection that potentially made him more against the Church? (mention Albert of Mainz)

Pope Leo X authorized the sale of a special Saint Peter’s indulgence to finance his building plans in Rome.

The archbisop in the area that contolled the area where Wittenburg was located, Albert of Mainz, actually recieved some of those profits.

Give more description to Archbisop Albert’s indulgence sale in Wittenburg… (what was the slogan?!)

It promised that the purchase of the indulgence about Saint Peter would bring full forgiveness for one’s own sins or release a loved one from purgatory. A famous slogan for this sale was, “As soon as coin in coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs”

What did Luther do in response to Archbisop Albert’s indulgence sale?

He wrote a letter in 1517 to him on the subjected and enclosed his “Ninty Five Theses on the Power of Indulgence.” His main argument was that indulgences did not compare to the preachings of the Gospel and down played the importance of charity in Christian Life.

These theses were also nailed to the door of the church at Wittenberg Castle in 1517 too!

What was another early reformer other than Luther? What were some of his contributions?

Ulrich Zwingli who believed that Christian life rested on Scriptures (the pure words of God and sole basis of religious truth).

He attacked the indulgences, the Mass, and clerical celibacy. He even reformed the Church in Zurich which began in 1519 and gathered strong support.

What did Luther, Zwingli and other Protestants agree on how a person is to be saved? GIVE A SPECIFIC DETAIL!!!

They believed that salvation came from faith alone and was irrelevant of the good works or the sacraments.

Luther for example, believed that God, not people, initiates slavation in his work of On Christian Liberty.

What was something that Protestants disagreed on?

It was the ritual of Communion (Eucharist). Luther believed that Christ was really present in the bread and wine, but said that it was BECAUSE OF God’s mystery, not the actions of the Priest.

Zwingli understood Communion as a memorial where Christ was present in spirit among the faithful, but not in the bread and wine.

What was the Colloquy of Marburg?

It was a meeting in Marburg Castle in Germany between Luther and Zwingli to discuss Eucharist (communion) in 1529. However, although they were able to agree on almost everything, they could not agree on that Eucharist.

What was Martin Luther’s On Christian Liberty about? Give one specific example about his idea of liberty and scriptures.

It argued that Christan freedome came from faith in Christ rather than external laws/rituals. He mentioned that the idea of liberty for example, didn’t mean political freedom but instead spiritual freedom. People could be freed from the need to earn salvation through good works or church laws. Salvation was by faith alone.

He agrued that Scriptures were God’s Word and was therefore the only true authority for faith and life (not the pope or church traditions).

What does Lucas Cranach’s The True Church and the False Church represent?

It contrasts the Protestant and Catholic practices. Luther is standing in a pulpit, preaching the word of God from a Bible. At the right, you see how Hell is engulfing the pope, cardinals, and friars, a kind of “false church.” At the left, there is a crucified Christ with a lamb (the lamb of God). There’s also people completing Eucharist (Communion), showing that Christ WAS present during that (a Lutheran idea).

What was the Radical Reformation?

This involved individuals in Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands in the 1520s who created communities of voluntary believers separate from the state, as they believed it in the New Testament.

The ideas between each group varied by a lot. Some groups for example, adopted the baptism of adults and some tried for communal ownership of property.

However, since they weren’t able to accept a state church, they were hated by Protestant and Catholic authorities. People involved in these groups were often cruelly executed.

In 1523-24, Nobelmen began restricting the commonland that they owned in favor of profits. What happened as a result? Hint: mention Luther’s tract!

The Peasants, like of Germany, were infuriated because they were often imposed of new rents or additional services to use the land. Called the Great Peasants’ War of 1525.

Initially, Luther stood with these Peasants who started to break out and critisize the nobelmen; HOWEVER, after a rebellion broke out, Luther sided against them because freedom meant independence from the Roman Church, not opposition to legally established secular powers (AKA the commons). For example, in Luthers Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants, he said that everyone who can should smite, slay, and essentially kill any peasant who rebelled, claiming that nothing can be more poisonous than a rebel.

Describe Anna Jansz… (how did people know she was an Anabaptist?)

She was an Anabaptist who played a heavy role in the Radical Reformation. She was arrested in Rotterdam because of her Anabaptist convictions, which included rejecting the idea of infant baptism. Instead of recanting, she was executed by drowning (a common punishment for Anabaptists).

People knew she was Anabaptist because of the songs they sung, like her “Trumpet Song” amonst them

How did Protestant men react with women or think of them? What about divorce?

They ended up siding with the medieval Scholastic ideas that the man was meant to be more authoritative; however, men were meant to be kind to them.

Martin Luther and Swingli both bleived that celibacy (not marrying) was against human nature and God’s commandments, so both of them married (Martin Luther to Katharina von Bora).

Even with Divorce, they believed that it was allowed for marriages that were completely broken (Catholic law rarely permitted this!) not that you could do it if you simply wanted to.

How did the rise in dynasties usually occur? Give a specific example.

It was usually through the marriage of royal and noble sons and daughters. For example, The Holy Roman emperor Frederick III acquired only a small amount of territory being a ruler of most of Austria but then gained a lot of money with his marriage to Princess Eleonore of Portugal in 1452.

Why was it that many people in Germany, including the rulers, sided with Protestantism?

It allowed them to resist the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Emperor, claim greater independence, and seize church lands and wealth (remember that nobelmen could make money!!).

Who was King Charles V? What about religiously?

It was a Habsburg that inherited a ton of land as the grandson of Maximilian. 

He was a very strong defender of Catholicism, so when he claimed all of this land, there were obviously tons of wars. One conflict involved Switzerland where while some remained Catholic, others became Protestant. In 1531 (during this war), Zwlingli was killed.

What happened when Charles V called an Imperial Diet in 1520 to meet at ____

Augsburg; It involved the Lutherans and Catholics. The Lutherans, in an act to stop this conflict, presented The Augsburg Confession, but Charles V refused to accept it and ordered every Lutheran to give up any confiscated church property (did not work at all; many German lands actually formed a military alliance).

Obviously, there was a ton of conflict in Germay with Charles V. Discuss the wars that happened after 1546 with him and Protestants…

His efforts to heal the religious split and the state unity was INITIALLY successful, which alarmed France and the Pope, since he was already SUPER powerful. The Pope therefore (and France) sent troops to the Lutheran princes.

With this support, there was a treaty called the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, which officially recognized Lutheranism.

What was the first area outside the Holy Roman Empire to accept the Reformation?

It was Denmark-Norway under the rule of King Christian III.

The king officially broke with the Church in the 1530s and most clergy followed in Denmark; however, in Norway there were biolent reactions, and Lutheraniasm was only gradually imposed on an unwilling population.

How was the Reformation in England?

King Henry VIII originally married Catherine of Argon, but wanted a divorce, believing that Anne Boleyn would produce a son he wanted. The divorce was annulled and Henry VIII had Parliament remove the authority of the pope and made himself the supreme head of the Church of England. 

As the emperor of the Church of England, what did Henry VIII do?

He ended 900 years of English monastic life, dispersing the monks and nuns to confiscate their land (for wealth and power). Properties went into the royal treasury and then sold, which tied them to the Protestant Church.

In the English Reformation, some English people had been dissatisfied with the Existing Church of England and some didn’t. For the people that enjoyed the existing Church of England, what was a specific example?

In 1536, there was a popular opposition in the north by people which led to the Pilgrimage of Grace (a rebellion that was the most serious in England at this time). Although a truce was reached,their leaders were arrested, tried, and executed.

What were the contributions of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer?

He was a person in the English Reformation that invited Protestant theologians to England and passed the first Book of Common Prayer (1549), which included services and prayers in Parliament. AFTER KING HENRY VIII

In the English Reformation, some English people had been dissatisfied with the Existing Church of England and some didn’t. For the people that enjoyed the Reformation, what was a specific example?

After Henry VIII and his son, Mary Tudor tried to return the nation back to Catholicism. She rescinded the Reformation legislation of her father’s reign and restored Roman Catholicism. She even killed about a thousand Protestants. Afte rhtis, the next Queen, Queen Elizabeth finally restored religious stability, proving that Mary Tudor’s contributions weren’t successful. 

What did Queen Elizabeth I do in terms of the Reformation?

She was heavily Protestant and required officials to swear that she was supreme in matters of religion and politics or risk a fine. She supported the Anglican Church, which conducted services in English and didn’t permit monasteries to be re-established or clergymen allowed to marry.

What happened towards the end of Eliabeth’s reign?

It was threatened by Philip II of Spain who wanted to re-establish Catholicism. Originally, Philip II wanted his marriage with Mary Tudor to unite England with Catholic Europe, but she died. Instead, he wanted Mary, Queen of Scots, to become the Queen instead of Elizabeth (she was second in line) since she was Catholic. However, Philip II’s plan failed when Mary (Queen of Scots) was executed after people found out she was trying to assassinate Elizabeth.

Although Philip II’s plan originally failed (about having Mary of Scots take over), what did he do?

He sent the SPANISH ARMADA!!!! This was a fleet sent in 1588 against England to overthrow Protestantism; weather and the English fleet defeated it.

What was some of the social discipline in the Reformation? talk about Calvin’s Geneva for example, a place that literally experiemented with Theocracy.

For Calvin in 1547, if someone committed blasphemy, he shall be made to kiss the earth for the first offense, pay 5 sous for the second, and 6 for the third.

For drunkenness, you would have to pay 3 sous; th second 6; and the third 10 sous and be put in prison

For Songs/Dances, if someone sang immoral or outrageous songs, he shall be put in prison for three days then sent to consistory.

Obviously, the Catholic Church knew it had to reform. Who was it that led the reform? What did they do specifically?

Pope Paul III helped to end the selling of churhc offies, supported improvements in education for the clergy, and more control over clergy life.

In 1542, he established the Holy Office, which oversaw the Roman Inquisition, a committee of six cardinals with authority over all Catholics (given the power to arrest, imprison, and execute).

He also created a general council that met from 1545-63 at Trent to reform the Church and to secure reconciliation with the Protestants (talk about the specifics of the Council of Trent in another flashcard :D).

What was the Holy Office set up by Pope Paul III?

It oversaw the Roman Inquisition (a committee with six cardinals that had almost absolute power over Catholics). 

It also published the Index of Prohibited Books, which included a list of forbidden reading by Christian Humanists like Erasmus. 

Discuss the Council of Trent (like it’s specifics and what it did)…

It helped to establish a basis for a renewal of the Catholic Church.

It gave equal validity to the Scriptures and to tradition as sources of religious truth. It also reaffirmed the seven sacraments and Catholic teaching on Eucharist (specifically that wine and bread were literally the body and blood of Christ).

It fixed the corruption in priests and clergymen (like Pluralism, absenteeism, priests having sex with local women).

NOTE: This was a simple council; NOT EVERYTHING that happened here was actually layed into “law”

What was the purpose of religious orders?

It was to raise the moral and intelectual level of the clergy and people.

In general, how were religious orders REFORMED? Give an example.

They were often made more strict so they followed more rigorous standards.

For example, Carmelite nun Teresa of Avila, Spain, traveled around the country to reofrm her Carmelite order to make it more strict in terms of defining poverty. HOWEVER, she was heavily criticized and even investigated by the Spanish Inquisition because of being a “disobedient woman” by Church officials.

What were Jesuits? Give an example BESIDES Carmelite nun Teresa of Avila. 

These were groups of people to spread the Roman Catholic faith. 

It was founded by Loyola, who studied books about Christ and even spend a year in seclusion to further his insights published in Spiritual Exercises (1548) which set out a training program for meditation with God. 

What did the Concordat of Bologna do? What was the CAUSE of it?

It allowed the French Corwn (King Francis I at the time) to appoint all French bishops and abbots and require them to pay taxes to the Crown. It was a treaty with the papacy in an effort to increase taxes and raise revenue (as a result from the Habsurg-Valois wars).

What happened as a result of the Concordat of Bologna? Give a specific example!

It ended up drawing a lot of people who were already Calvinist or on the verge of converting to Calvinism. At this time, King Henry II died, leaving a very weak french monarchy. This then led to civic violence with Calvinists and Catholics beliving each other’s teachings were incorrect.

Calvinist teachings called the power of images, statues, etc to be taken down, so they did. Catholic mobs responded by defending the images, and crowds on both sides killed opponents.

Obviously, there was a ton of conflict in France in the 1560s-70s. What was the thing that ultimately saved France?

It was a small group of politiques, who believed that a strong monarhcy was the best way to save France from total collapse. Eventually, Catherine de’ Medici and Henry III were killed, allowing Henry of Navarre to become King Henry IV. HE was the one who saved it via his conversion to Catholicism and the Edict of Nantes. 

What was the Edict of Nantes? How did it actually get signed into law?

It was a document in 1598 which granted liberty and recognition to Calvinists, which restored the peace in France.

France’s King Henry IV approved this. The only reason he was able to was because of the death of Catherine de’ Medici and King Henry III.

What happened in the Netherlands under Charles V.

There were a lot of Protestant ideas, specificlly Calvinistic, that spread here. Charles V was able to suppress a lot of it, but when he abdicatd in 1556, giving Philip II power, eveything changed.

During Philip II’s reign, the Calvinist ideology was about working hard intellectually and physically. So, when Philip II raised taxes in the 1560s, Calvistics rebelled. They destroyed 30 Cathloic churches in Antwerp. Even after Philip II sent 20k troops, he ultimately had to sign a treaty. This was because the northern 7 territories formed the Union of Utrecht and got help from England.

What was predestination? (state the origin of that belief)

It was the idea that your simple human figure was destined for heaven or hell without you making any contribution. This was a CALVINISTIC idea. 

How did a Calvin service differ from a Catholic one?

It was more laid back and had a hexagonal altar as described by a Musee Protestant. Additoinally, the architecture was very plain, emphasizing that we didn’t need an over-the-top Cathedral; we just needed a structure to house ourselves and God.

There was a literal timer, supporting the idea that the priest wasn’t above anyone else in the room. When the timer was up, they were done talking. The reformed service of worship and the sacraments - Musée protestant

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THIS WAS AS DISCUSSED FROM A MUSEE PROTESTANT!!!

What was discussed in The Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants?

It contained multiple articles that discussed German Peasants’ reasons for protest. They noted that they weren’t able to engage with the livestock on the commons or even if they went to eat the crops ON THEIR LAND. They were also unable to fish since they were considered owned by the nobelmen. 

When Martin Luther made his 95 Theses, what did Pope ____ (say his name first) do, same with Charles V?

Leo X; He issued a papal bull (Exsurge Domine) which excommunicated Luther. Since the pope couldn’t politically do anything, Charles V supported this, since he was Catholic. Charles V called Luther to have a trial called the Diet of Worms. In this trial, the Exsurge Domine called out the 41 errors in Luther’s theses, allowing him to recant or protest them.

What was the issue with attendance at the Diet of Worms?

It was getting Luther to show up, since Jan Hus had a similar fate but was executed. As a result, Charles V gave him free passage to show up and defend his ideas.

Although he REFUTED 41 errors, an arrested was ordered after the trial. Consequentially, he was captured by a group of robbers sent from Frederick de Wise, who took Luther and hid him in a castle that de Wise didn’t know about. This was a GOOD thing because it allowed Luther to write the Bible in German.

Why were some groups (name them) interested to Lutheranism?

Religiously Devote people were interested because they wouldn’t have to go through a hiearchy to reach God. 

The Educated (aka humanistic type believers) were interested because they could take on NEW educational and religious beliefs. 

The Nobility were interested because the power shifted away from the Catholic Church, which allowed for more power to go into them (via money). 

How did Luther start out? More specifically, how did he attract a following?

What word was he focused on?

As a Professor of Theology at Wittenburg, he had a strong following of students because of his beliefs and knowledge. He was concerned about the salvation of other people and the direction the Catholic Church was headed in.

He was focused on Orthodoxy (absolute faith rather than proving yourself to God).

Luther believed in Orthodoxy, give some examples as a way to prove he did…

He believed that Mary should be removed from the religous picture and other images in Geneva. He believed that it was only one connection with people and God.

Describe Spanish University (since it’s a GREAT connection with Renaissance and Reformation)…

Involved Christian Humanists (led by Spanish Humanist Narros) to create a Polyglot bible (bible with 5 languages) to allow ELITE European scholars to communicate about what these new translations might suggest about the bible.

It was a poke at the Catholic Church because of these differing translations. EX: You had Thomas More, Erasmus, John Whycliff, Jan Hus, Luther

Talk about Erasmus’s Praise of Folly…

It was written as another personality that took on a ficticious role of Folly who acts as a narrowminded and follish character. Folly described the world as they saw it, critisizing Church leaders and the overall Catholic Church. It was a call to create a pure Christian morality (one without corruption and absent theology). 

While political and economic issues determined the course of the Reformation in western and northern Europe, _____ factors provied decisive in eastern europe. Be more specific after this!

ethnic; People with diverse backgrounds had settled here from the Middle Ages. For example, in Bohemia, a Czech majority was ruled by Germany and they adopted the ideas of Jan Hus. The emperor had even been forced to reocognize a separte Hussite Church.

What happened in Bohemia that was one of the casues of the Thirty Years’ War?

In Bohemia, the forces of the Catholic Reformation promoted a revival and influence. This allowed some areas to reconvert from Lutheranism back to Catholicism (this was a CAUSE).

Describe Poland-Lithuania in terms of the Reformation and how a Counter-Reformation started…

In 1500, Poland and the Grand Dutch of Lithuania were jointly governed by a king, senate, and diet (parliament); however, each still had separate officials, judicial systems, armies, and citizenships. Additionally, both territories were incrediby diverse. You had Germans, Italians, Tartars, and Jews living here. With that, these people usually came via merantilism, invited by medieval rulers because of their wealth, or simply because of agricultural improvements.

Therefore, it was no surprise that the GERMAN towns adopted Lutheran ideas; however, King Sigismund I and ordinary Poles opposed these ideas (they were anti-German).

The idea of Calvinism appealed to Polish nobility because it stressed the power of church elders. Additionally, since it was founded in France, it appealed better compared to Lutheranism.

In Polish-Lithuania, what prevented united opposition to Catholicism?

It was mainly the doctrinal differences among the different religions that existed here, like Lutheranism and Calvinism. Therefore, they couldn’t all collectively agree and a Catholic Counter-Reformation gained momentum. Then, because of the Jesuits, Poland shifted to Roman Catholic

Explain the Religious Order built on Education…

One example was the Ursuline order of nuns, founded in 1535 by Angela Merici which focused on the education of women. The Ursulines taught young girls with the goal of re-Christianizing society by teaching these future wives and mothers.

Describe the first group of Jesuits by Loyola…

He gathered a group of six people in 1540 and got papal approval of the new Society of Jesus. These new recruits, mainly wealthy merchants and professional families, sought to improve people’s spiritual condition instead of altering doctrine.

On top of this, they also vowed special obedience to the Pope, which attracted a lot of young men, making the group even stronger.

What was the result after King Henry II was killed (how did he die)?

As the ruler of France during the French Religious Wars, he died after being shot in the face while celebrating a treaty. As a result, his trhee weak sons could not provide necessary leadership and it was Catherine de’ Medici who dominated. This break in the monarchy led French nobles to adopt Protestantism as a religious cloak for their independence. 

Explain the Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre…

In 1572, a Catholic attack on Calvinist in Paris took place a few days after Margaret of Valois married the Protestant Henry of Navarre. The marriage was meant to help calm Catholic and Huguenot tensions, but Huguenot leaders who came to Paris to witness the wedding were killed by the king’s soldiers. This ended up renewing the war! (and then politiques came in :D)

What did many educated Christian theologians, canon lawyers, and officials believe a witch was?

They believed that on top of witches being able to use magic, they were also connected with the Devil. They were essentially vessels used by the Devil to do what he wanted.

What were some witches thought to have engaged in?

They were thought to engage in sexual orgies with the Devil, fly through the night to sabbats (meetings that parodied Christian services) to steal wafers and unbaptized babies to use in rituals. Some theorists also believed that witches were organized to overthrow Christianity.

How many witches were tried for the witchcraft in the 16th and 17th centuries? How many were convicted?

100k-200k were tried and 40-60k were executed. 

Many witches that were tried and even convicted were women, why was this?

This was mainly because of misogyny (hatred of women) and an emphasis that women’s powerful sexual desire could only be traced to a demonic lover. They also viewed women as weaker than men and more likely to accept a deal with the Devil.

Therefore, since they actually lacked power in society and gender norms about the use of violence, people believed that they were more likely to use curses to get what they wanted instead of what a man would do.

How was a witch actually tried for a witch-craft case?

There were two methods that were used: accusational and inquisitorial.

For accusational procedures (old and no longer used), a suspect knew the accusers and the charges they brought. As a result, if the charges were not proven, the accuser could be held liable.

For inquisitorial procedures (more commonly used), authorities brought the case up, making it more likely for people to accuse others, for they wouldn’t have to take personal responsibility. This procedure involved intense questioning and often with torture.

How did witch trials even begin?

They usually started when a single accusation was made in a town. If someone were to spoil food, make children ill, or kill animals for example, they were accused of using magic. This especially involved Women being prosecuted since these jobs were generally a part of a women’s job. 

After charged, the individual would be questioned. If they confessed, they were usually executed. As Hausamannin states, if someone confessed, they were put to death by burning at the stake and her body first to be torn five times with red-hot irons. 

What was a second cause of the Thirty Years War?

The Peace of Augsburg Treaty that was signed, recognizing Lutheranism, deteriorated as the faiths of various areas shifted. As a result, Lutheran princes formed the Protestant Union (1608) and Catholics retaliated with the Catholic League (1609).

What was the goal of the two alliances in the Thirty Years War?

The Protestant Union and Catholic League were determined that the other should make no territorial or religious advance.

What other interests, besides the two religious leagues, were involved?

Dynaties were also involved. The Spanish Habsburgs for example supported the gaosl of their Austrian relatives, which was to preserve the unity of the empire and Catholicism. 

Summarize the Thirty Years’ War… (state the starting conflict, not the cause because that’s on other cards!)

The first conflict was in Bohemia between the Catholic League and Protestant Union. However, it very quickly spread throughout the Holy Roman Empire. And, after a series of Catholic victories, the conflict turned to favor Protestantism because of Sweden under the efforts of king Gustavus Adolphus and then France, whos prime minister, Cardinal Richelieu worked to undermine the Habsburg power.

The conflict ended with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. It established peace between religious conflicts and recognized the independence of over 300 German princes. THIS RECONFIRMED THE EMPEROR’S LIMITED AUTHORITY.

Additionally, the Peace of Augsburg became permanent, recognizing both Lutheranism and Calvinism on top of Catholicism. 

The Dutch-Republic also gained its Independence!!!