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The Enlightenment
An intellectual movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and the improvement of society through human achievement and understanding of the natural world.
John Locke
Philosopher who argued for natural rights to life, liberty, and property; believed that people could rebel against unjust governments.
Social Contract
An agreement among individuals to create and adhere to a government for mutual benefit, often associated with political theories of Locke and Hobbes.
Montesquieu
Philosopher known for the idea of checks and balances through the separation of powers in government.
Voltaire
Philosopher who advocated for religious liberty and freedom of speech.
Adam Smith
Economist who advocated for laissez-faire economics, which promotes minimal government intervention in the economy.
Abolitionism
Movement aimed at ending the Atlantic slave trade and freeing all enslaved people.
Nationalism
A strong feeling of loyalty and identification with one's own nation or ethnic group, often leading to demands for independence.
Haitian Revolution
Successful uprising of slaves in Haiti that led to independence from France, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines.
Realpolitik
A pragmatic approach to politics based on practical considerations rather than ideological or ethical objectives.
The Second Industrial Revolution
Characterized by advancements in steel, chemicals, precision machinery, and electronics during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Transcontinental Railroad
Railroad completed in 1869 that connected the eastern U.S. with the Pacific coast, facilitating economic expansion and industrial growth.
Utilitarianism
Philosophical theory proposed by John Stuart Mill that the best actions are those that promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Tanzimat Reforms
A series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire aimed at modernization and restructuring of institutions in the 19th century.
Meiji Restoration
Period in Japan where power was restored to the emperor in 1868, leading to significant modernization and westernization of the country.
Consumerism
The cultural trend of maximizing consumption of goods and services, particularly in the context of rising middle-class standards.
Factory System
A method of manufacturing that uses machinery and assembly lines in large scale production, dominant during the Industrial Revolution.
Labor Unions
Organizations formed by workers to advocate for better working conditions, wages, and rights in relation to their employers.
Colonialism
The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial control over another country, often by settlement or exploitation.
Deism
The belief that a divine being created the universe and set natural laws into motion, advocating reason and observation of the natural world.
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