Unit 1 - positive psychology and methods of psychological rsearch

experimental

experimental

to explore cause and effect; manipulate one or more factors; use random assignment and a control group

non-experimental

Predictive and descriptive methods of research, without a manipulated independent variable or control group

Dependent variable (DV)

The measured outcome of a study; the responses of the subjects in a study.

Confounding Variables

factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

sample

a small group taken from a full Population that does not include all individuals; should be REPRESENTATIVE of the population

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

representative samples

Random groups selected. A sample that is similar to the population as a whole in regard to variables that might impact the results such as gender, religious affiliation, income, and ethnicity.

convenience samples

samples of individuals who are the most readily available

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

placebo group

A control group of participants who believe they are receiving treatment.

placebo effect

Improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

single-blind procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

case study

an observation technique in which one person or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases

directionality problem

a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

third variable problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

scatterplots

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

quantitative measure

A measure that reflects a numeric amount

Likert scale

a way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum 1-5 or 1-7

Qualitative measures

Data not recorded in numerical form - open ended questions, structured interviews. . .

surveys

Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions.

framing

the way an idea is posed; how an issue is seen in context can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

social desirability bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

self reporting bias

A type of measurement error in which subjects inaccurately report data about themselves

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

falsifiability

if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

peer review

A process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research.

institutional review board

A committee at each research institution to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

informed assent

Participant's agreement to participate in the absence of full understanding - commonly applies to individuals who have not attained legal majority and/or capacity

protection from harm

the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm

confidentiality

The participants' data and responses should be not identify their personal identity. Code numbers are used to protect anonymity.

minimal deception

Sometimes it is necessary to conduct research without participants knowing the true purpose of the study. This should be only when absolutely necessary, minimal and will not cause lasting harm.

confederates

in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation

debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

central tendency

a measure that represents the typical response or the behavior of a group as a whole. Mean median and mode

mean

average

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

measures of variation

A measure used to describe the distribution of data - range and standard deviation

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

positive skewed distribution

Most of the scores are bunched towards the left. The mode is to the left of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the right.

negative skewed distribution

Most of the scores are bunched towards the right. The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left.

bimodal distribution

a frequency distribution having two different values that are heavily populated with cases

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

effect size

a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the extent of an experimental effect

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

p value

The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance). <.05 is the general standard and means there is less than 5% chance the results are just luck.

Biological perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior

Behavioral perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.

Cognitive perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior

Humanistic perspective

the psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices

developmental perspective

psychological perspective emphasizing that change occurs across a lifespan; focus has shifted over recent years to teens and adults

Character Strength of Wisdom

Helps us use our strengths of gathering and using information

Character Strength of Courage

Helps us use our willpower and overcome adversity

Character Strength of Humanity

Helps us use our strengths of love, kindness and social intelligence

Character Strength of Justice

Helps us use our strengths of leadership, teamwork and fairness

Character Strength of Temperance

Helps us use our strengths of forgiveness prudence humility and self-regulations

Character Strength of Transcendence

Helps us use our strengths of appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor and spirituality