learning

learning

the process of gaining new knowledge or behaviors due to experiences

social cognitive theory/perspective

Bandura:

views behavior as influenced by that e interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context

views ppl as active agents who can both influence and are influenced by their environment

observational learning

learn how to think and behave by watching others

vicarious learning

learn how to think and behave from others indirectly, ie. from their stories

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. the brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable empathy and imitation

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. voluntary actions intended to benefit others

antisocial behavior

harmful, disruptive behavior, view aggressive behavior and mirror them

associative/ behavioral learning

learning that certain events occur together. the events may be 2 stimuli or a response and its consequences

law of effect

Thorndike

principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant conditioning

Skinner

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

operant behavior

a voluntary behavior done to earn rewards or avoid punishments

operant chamber/ skinner box

used in operant condition in research. chamber with a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforcer. attached devices to record the animals rate or bar pressing or key pecking

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after associations with reinforcement

positive reinforcement

add a describable stimulus. increase behavior by presenting positive reinforcers. any stimlus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

remove an aversive stimulus. increase behavior by stoping/reducing negative stimulus. any stimulus that is removed a response strengthens

NOT PUNISHMENT

primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its associations with a primary reinforcer

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

intermittent partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforce does

fixed ratio schedule

second strongest resistance to extinction

response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses

variable ratio schedule

strongest against extinction

a response is reinforced after an unpredicted number of responses

fixed interval schedule

third strongest against extinction

response reinforced only after specific amount of time has elapsed

variable interval schedule

weakest against extinction

response reinforced at unpredicted time intervals

positive punishment

administer aversive stimulus

negative punishment

withdraw a rewarding stimulus

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure, muscle tension

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges/ treats

premack’s principle

a more desireable activity can be used to reinforce a less desirable one

ie. parents let child play video game after finishing homework

overjustification

overusage of bribes → external rewards decrease and individual’s intrinsic motivation to perform a task/behavior

ie. painting for fun → sell paintings → no more satisfaction

instinctive drift

conditioned behavior may lead back to natural and instinctive behavior of the animal

classical conditioning

learning by developing an association between two stimuli that leads to a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus

stimulus

something that gets detected by one of your 5 senses

respondent behavior

an involuntary (unconscious/automatic) reaction/behavior that occurs as a response to a stimulus

response

a reaction to a stimlus such as physiological arousal or emotion

unconditioned stimulus (UCS/US)

a stimulus that naturally triggers a particular response

unconditioned response (UCR/UR)

a naturally occurring reaction to a stimulus

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that initially produces no response or a response that can be changed through classical conditioning

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that was originally an NS and has become a CS due to repeated paring with US

NS → CS

NS + US → CS

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus

second/higher order conditioning

a procedure in which the CS is paired with a new NS, creating second (often weaker) CR

pairing

the process of association an NS to a US so that the NS becomes a CS

acquisition

1st stage of learning → period when stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response

when the NS and US are linked together so that the NS triggers the CR, through this, the NS becomes the CS

repeated parings of CS and US leads to acquisition

extinction

if the US does not periodically occur after the CS, eventually the CS will no longer produce a CR

spontaneous activity

if extinction takes place and the CS is not presented for a while, the CS can be presented and once again cause a CR though likely a weaker CR

generalization

when a stimulus that is similar to the CS causes a CR even though the stimulus is not exactly the same as the CS

discrimination

when a stimulus that is similar to teh CS does not cause a CR even though it’s similar to the CS. CR only occurs to a specific CS.

aversive conditioning

a type of counter conditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) to an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

seeks to condition an aversion to something the person should avoid

learned/conditioned taste aversion

the association of the taste of a food/fluid to an aversive stimulus (usually gastrointestinal discomfort/illness), learning to a long lasting aversion for that particular taste

preparedness

people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses

explains why certain types of phobia tend to form more easily

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparently until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

ie. after exploring a maze, rats act is they learned a cognitive map of it

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule, or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error prone- use of heuristics

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling/thought as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

“gut feeling”

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

solve a problem the same way because you’re used to it

heuristic (bias)

a simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

mental shortcut that focuses on one aspect of problem and ignores others

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

“AHA moment”

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that divulges in different directions)

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

metacognition

process of thinking (intentional)about how one thinks and learns

flow

a completely involved, focused state of consciousness with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills