Ap Lang Final Exam Semester 1

Analogy

Explaining something complex by comparing it to something more simple.

Connotation

The implied meaning of a word; words that can broadly have positive, negative, or neutral connotations.

Denotation

The literal, dictionary-definition meaning of a word.

Diction

The style of language used; generally tailored to be appropriate to the audience and situation.

Ethos

Setting up a source as credible and trustworthy.

Imagery

Any descriptive language used to evoke a vivid sense or image of something; including figurative language.

Implication

When something is suggested without being concretely stated.

Irony

Saying the opposite of what you mean; also used to describe situations in which the results of an action are dramatically different than intended.

Juxtaposition

Placing two very different things together for effect.

Logos

Appealing to someone else's sense of concrete facts and logic.

Pathos

An Aristotelian appeal. Involves appealing to someone's emotions.

Rhetorical

The use of spoken or written words to convey your ideas and convince your audience.

Rhetorical Triangle

The relationship between the author, the audience, the text/message, and the context.

Speaker

The persona adopted by the author to deliver his or her message; may or may not actually be the same person as the author.

Syntax

The way sentences are grammatically constructed.

Synthesis

Combining sources or ideas in a coherent way for the purpose of a larger point.

Tone

The use of stylistic devices to reveal an author's attitude toward a subject.

Voice

An author's unique sound. Similar to style.

Allusion

Making a brief reference to the cultural canon, for example, the bible.

Anecdote

Offering a brief narrative episode.

Concession

Agreeing with the opposing viewpoint on a certain smaller point (but not in the larger argument).

Paradox

A phrase or assertion that appears to contradict itself.

Parallelism

Repeated structural elements in a sentence.

Satire

A genre of humorous and mocking criticism to expose the ignorance and/or ills of society.

Understatement

Deliberately minimizing something, usually for humorous effect.

Definition of an argument

The goal of an argument is to change the initial position on a controversial issue. At times the goal is achieved by the arguer who presents a claim along with evidence and reasons to convince them. At other times the arguers try to come to some kind of agreement while acknowledging the different viewpoints.

Conditions for a successful argument

when there is an Issue, Arguer, Audience, Common ground, Forum, and Audience outcome. (should produce a change in the audience)

Conditions for a failed argument

No disagreement or reason to argue, Risky or trivial issues, Difficulty establishing common ground, Standoffs or fights resulting in negative outcomes.

TRACE components

Text (is the argument), Reader (is the audience), Author, Constraints, Exigence (the thing signals the part that is controversial).

TRACE questions

Text (What kind of text is it? / What is it about?), Reader (Who is the target audience?), Author (Who is the author?), Constraints (What are the constraints?), Exigence (What happened to cause this argument).

Audience analysis

Friendly audience (near or total agreement with you),

Undecided audience (mildly agrees or mildly oppose with you),

Neutral audience (neutral, uncommitted, or uninterested in your argument),

Hostile/ resistant audience (may fully disagree, closed to the idea of change),

Unfamiliar audience (image them as neutral since you don’t know their position),

Linked audience ( not directly connected or participating in your argument)

Developing common ground with a neutral audience

Analyze their needs by appealing to those needs.

Developing common ground with an undecided audience

Get to the point quickly and use support to establish connections.

Developing common ground with an unfamiliar audience

Imagine them as neutral.

Developing common ground with a hostile audience

Agree to disagree.

Developing common ground with a linked audience

Supply links to encourage positive response.

Developing common ground with a familiar audience

Confirm their beliefs and strengthen their commitment.

Definition of plagiarism

Using someone else's language, ideas, or original material without acknowledging the source.

Avoiding plagiarism

Differentiate between your ideas and those of others, use quotation marks, and give credit to the original author.

Consequences of plagiarism

Poor grade, expulsion from college, legal repercussions.

Steps in creating and revising an argument

Read through material, Put it in order, Write an outline, Write the first draft, Revise the draft, Ask yourself revision questions, Avoid errors, Check one last time, Submit your paper.

Value of the Toulmin Model

The FIRST 3 parts are present in every argument, the LAST 3 are used to strengthen an argument and adapt it to the needs of the audience.

Toulmin Model Parts

Claim, Support, Warrant, Backing, Rebuttal, Qualifier.

TM Claim

The thesis, controlling idea, or main point of the argument.

TM Support

Additional information to convince the audience of the claim. Other words for it would be the evidence, proof, or information.

TM Warrant

Assumptions, general principles, and commonly accepted beliefs.

TM Backing

Support for the warrant. Other words for it would be evidence to back up “ideas”

TM Rebuttal

rebuttal is the challenge or disagreement

TM Qualifier

qualifiers are words that don’t demonstrate certainties. the words you would use are may be or might; many or some; and few or sometimes

Claim of Fact

Did it happen? Does it exist? All of the facts in the claims need to be proved their absolutely or probably true in order to be acceptable.

Example of Claim of Fact

when you claim that you turned a paper in on time even though the professor cannot find it, you are making a claim of fact.

Claim of Definition

What is it? How do we define it? Used as a type of support (usually at the beginning) to establish the meaning of one or more key terms.

Example of Claims of Definition

When you claim that an athlete who receives compensation for playing a sport is “professional” and therefore loses the “amateur” status, you are making a claim of definition.

Claims of Cause

What caused it? what are the effects?

Examples of Claims of Cause

when you claim that staying up late at a party CAUSED you to fail your exam the next day, you are making claims of cause.

Claims of Value

What values or criteria should I use to determine its goodness or badness? What do those people value? It is used to debate over values.

Examples of Claims of Value

When you claim that one college major is better than another, you are using a claim of value

Claims of Policy

What should we do about it? What should be our future course of action? The problem is stated and then a solution is provided.

Examples of Claims of Policy

When you claim that all new students should attend orientation, you are making a claim of policy.

Logos Proofs (logical)

include facts, reasons, and opinions that are based on reality. They rely on factual information, statistics, and accounts of actual events, past or present.

Types of Logical Proofs Logos

Sign, Induction, Cause, Deduction, Analogies (historical, literal, figurative, Definition, Statistics (These are all arguments)

LP Sign

used to prove a claim with certainty or probability of a claim (signs can be false)

LP Induction

give a number of examples and draw a claim, in the form of a conclusion, for them. also called an argument from the example

LP Cause

places the subject in a cause-and-effect relationship to show that it is either the cause of an effect or effect of a cause. Used to justify a claim.

LP Deduction

also called argument from a general principle (fact), its warrant is a general principle (fact)

LP Statistics

describe relationships among data, people, occurrences, and events in the real world.

LP Analogies

are used to show how something we may not know much about is like something we know in greater detail.

LP Definition

the way the key terms are defined in an argument to convince the audience of your position.

Ethos Proofs

proofs that build credibility, argument of authority; establish their credentials and accomplishments

Pathos

used to appeal to emotion.

Types of Emotional Proofs Pathos

motivation proof, used to urge the audience to take steps to meet their need. Ex, advertisements by political candidates