terms 91-181 ap psych unit four

Lowball Technique

A persuasion and selling technique in which an item or service is offered at a lower price than is actually intended to be charged, after which the price is raised to increase profits.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon whereby repeated exposure to a stimulus, such as a person, object, or idea, increases liking or preference for that stimulus over time, even in the absence of conscious awareness.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

A widely used psychological assessment tool for measuring personality and psychopathology, consisting of a series of true/false statements that assess various personality traits, psychological symptoms, and disorders.

Mirror - Image Perceptions

the reciprocal views or stereotypes that conflicting parties hold about each other, in which each side sees the other as aggressive, hostile, or unreasonable, while viewing themselves as peaceful, reasonable, and justified.

Motivation

the processes that initiate, guide, and sustain goal-directed behavior, including the internal and external factors that energize and direct behavior towards achieving specific goals or outcomes.

Multiculturalism

A perspective that recognizes the cultural diversity of a country and promotes equal standing for all cultural traditions.

Narcissism

a personality trait characterized by excessive self-admiration, grandiosity, entitlement, and a lack of empathy for others, often accompanied by a need for admiration and validation from others.

Neuroticism

A personality trait characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.

Normative Social Influence

when individuals conform to group norms or expectations in order to gain social approval, acceptance, or avoid rejection or disapproval.

Norms

shared rules, expectations, and standards of behavior that guide interactions and social conduct within groups or societies.

Obedience

the compliance with direct commands or instructions from an authority figure or social group, often in the absence of personal responsibility or accountability for the consequences of one's actions.

Obesity

a medical condition characterized by excessive accumulation of body fat to the extent that it may have adverse effects on health, well-being, and quality of life, often defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher.

Openness

A personality trait that reflects a person's openness to experience, creativity, and willingness to try new things.

Ostracism

the act of excluding or ignoring individuals from social interactions, relationships, or group activities, often resulting in feelings of rejection, loneliness, and social pain.

Other Race Effect

the tendency to better recognize and distinguish faces of individuals from one's own racial or ethnic group compared to those of other racial or ethnic groups.

Out - Group Homogeneity

The tendency to view an out-group as homogenous, or all the same, while seeing members of the in-group as more varied.

Outgroup

a social group with which an individual does not identify and may perceive as different or inferior, often leading to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination.

Passionate Love

an intense emotional state characterized by strong feelings of attraction, longing, and desire for intimacy and physical closeness, often experienced early in a romantic relationship.

Paul Costa

a psychologist known for his collaboration with Robert McCrae in developing the Five Factor Model (Big Five) of personality and for his research on personality development and aging.

Paul Ekman

an American psychologist known for his research on facial expressions, emotion, and nonverbal communication, as well as his contributions to the study of universal emotions and the Facial Action Coding System (FACS).

Peripheral Route Persuasion

a method of persuasion that relies on superficial factors such as attractiveness, credibility, or emotional appeals rather than the quality of the message itself.

Person Perception

the process of forming impressions, judgments, and evaluations of other people based on their behavior, appearance, and other observable characteristics.

Personality

an individual's unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist over time and across different situations, shaping their identity, interactions, and experiences.

Personality Inventory

a self-report questionnaire or assessment tool used to measure and assess various personality traits, characteristics, or dimensions, often based on empirical research and psychometric principles.

Personality Psychology

the branch of psychology that focuses on understanding individual differences in behavior, thoughts, and emotions, as well as the underlying psychological processes that contribute to the development and expression of personality traits.

Persuasion

the process of intentionally influencing attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of others through communication, argumentation, or manipulation of information.

Physiological Need

basic biological requirements for survival and functioning, such as food, water, shelter, and sleep, which must be satisfied to maintain homeostasis and well-being.

Polygraph

commonly known as a lie detector, a device used to measure physiological responses (such as heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductivity) that are believed to be associated with deception or emotional arousal, often used in forensic and security settings.

Preconscious

The area of the mind that contains information that can be brought into consciousness when needed.

Prejudice

a negative attitude or belief held about individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular social category, such as race, ethnicity, gender, or religion.

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.

Projective Test

a psychological assessment tool used to reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by presenting individuals with ambiguous stimuli and interpreting their responses, which are thought to reflect underlying personality dynamics.

Psychodynamic Theories

psychological theories that emphasize the role of unconscious processes, inner conflicts, and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior, particularly within the framework of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory.

Psychoanalysis

a therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that aims to explore and resolve unconscious conflicts, desires, and motivations through techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Rationalization

Creating a seemingly logical reason or excuse for behavior that might otherwise be shameful.

Reaction Formation

Behaving in a way that is opposite to one's unacceptable impulses.

Reciprocal Determinism

a key concept in social-cognitive theory proposed by Albert Bandura, suggesting that behavior, personal factors (such as cognition, beliefs), and environmental influences (such as social context, reinforcement) interact and influence each other bidirectionally over time.

Reciprocity Norm

a social norm that suggests individuals should reciprocate kind or helpful actions of others, fostering mutual cooperation and social exchange.

Regression

Reverting to an earlier stage of development in the face of stress.

Relative Deprivation

The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

Repression

a defense mechanism that involves pushing threatening or anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, or memories into the unconscious mind, preventing conscious awareness and reducing distress.

Richard Lazarus

an American psychologist known for his research on stress, coping, and emotion, particularly the cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, which emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in emotional experience.

Robert McCrae

a psychologist known for his research on personality and the development of the Five Factor Model (Big Five) of personality, which includes five broad dimensions of personality traits - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Robert Zajonc

a Polish-American psychologist known for his research on social psychology, social facilitation, and the mere exposure effect, which suggests that repeated exposure to stimuli increases liking and preference for those stimuli.

Role

a set of expected behaviors, duties, and responsibilities associated with a particular position, status, or social identity within a group or society.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

a projective psychological test consisting of symmetrical inkblots that individuals are asked to interpret, revealing unconscious thoughts, feelings, and perceptions based on their responses.

Scapegoat Theory

suggests that individuals or groups who are frustrated or facing negative circumstances may redirect their aggression toward a target that is perceived as weaker or different, serving as a scapegoat for their frustrations.

Self

a multidimensional construct that encompasses an individual's beliefs, attitudes, values, identity, and self-awareness, representing their subjective experience of themselves as separate and distinct from others.

Self - Actualization

the highest level of psychological development and fulfillment according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, characterized by the realization of one's potential, pursuit of personal growth, and fulfillment of intrinsic values and aspirations.

Self - Concept

an individual's perception, beliefs, and evaluations about themselves, including their identity, self-worth, abilities, and roles, which shapes their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Self - Determination Theory

a motivational theory emphasizing the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in fostering intrinsic motivation, personal growth, and well-being.

Self - Disclosure

the voluntary sharing of personal information, thoughts, feelings, or experiences with another person, which fosters intimacy and trust in interpersonal relationships.

Self - Efficacy

the belief in one's own ability to successfully accomplish tasks, achieve goals, or overcome challenges, based on past experiences, skills, and perceived capabilities.

Self - Esteem

an individual's overall evaluation of their own worth, value, and competence, encompassing feelings of self-respect, self-acceptance, and self-confidence.

Self - Fulfilling Prophecy

a belief or expectation that influences behavior in a way that makes the belief or expectation come true, often due to confirmation bias or changes in behavior that align with the belief.

Self - Serving Bias

a cognitive bias that involves attributing successes to internal factors (such as ability or effort) while attributing failures to external factors (such as luck or situational factors), in order to protect one's self-esteem and maintain a positive self-image.

Self - Transcendence

a concept proposed by Abraham Maslow, referring to the capacity to transcend personal concerns, ego boundaries, and individual identity in pursuit of higher meaning, connection, and spiritual experiences.

Sensation - Seeking Theory

A theory suggesting that individuals have varying levels of a need for stimulation and excitement.

Set Point

a hypothetical physiological level or range (such as body weight or temperature) that the body tries to maintain within a stable equilibrium through regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops.

Sigmund Freud

an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories on the structure of the mind (id, ego, superego), stages of psychosexual development, and defense mechanisms.

Situational Attribution

Attributing behavior to external factors or circumstances.

Social Exchange Theory

proposes that people's social behavior is based on the calculation of rewards and costs, where individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs in their interactions with others.

Social Facilitation

the tendency for the presence of others to enhance performance on simple or well-learned tasks, but hinder performance on complex or novel tasks, due to increased arousal and evaluation apprehension.

Social Identity

the part of an individual's self-concept that is derived from their membership in social groups, such as nationality, ethnicity, gender, or profession, which shapes their sense of identity and belonging.

Social Influence

The effect that other people have on an individual's thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviors.

Social Inhibition

The tendency to perform worse on tasks when in the presence of others, especially for tasks that are complex or not well practiced.

Social Loafing

the tendency for individuals to exert less effort or motivation when working collectively in a group compared to when working individually, due to diffusion of responsibility and decreased accountability.

Social Norms

The accepted behaviors that an individual is expected to conform to in a particular group, community, or culture.

Social Psychology

The branch of psychology that studies how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts, including the influence of social interactions, groups, and cultural factors on behavior.

Social Responsibility Norm

Suggests individuals should help those in need, especially when they are dependent, vulnerable, or unable to help themselves.

Social Script

A set of expected behaviors, actions, and responses that guide interactions in specific social situations, such as greetings, conversations, or dating rituals.

Social Trap

A situation in which individuals or groups pursue immediate rewards or benefits that ultimately lead to negative long-term consequences for themselves or others, often due to a lack of cooperation or consideration of the common good.

Social - Cognitive Perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes the interaction between individual characteristics (such as personality traits, cognition) and environmental influences (such as social contexts, learning experiences) in shaping behavior and personality.

Soloman Asch

A social psychologist known for his research on conformity, particularly his experiments on conformity to group pressure and the influence of social norms on individual behavior.

Spotlight Effect

A phenomenon in which individuals tend to overestimate the extent to which others notice and pay attention to their appearance, behavior, or actions, leading to self-consciousness and social anxiety.

Stanley Milgram

A social psychologist known for his controversial experiments on obedience to authority, which demonstrated the willingness of individuals to obey authority figures even when it conflicted with their personal conscience.

Stanley Schachter

An American psychologist known for his research on emotions, social psychology, and the two-factor theory of emotion, which proposes that emotions involve both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.

Stereotype

A fixed, oversimplified, and often negative belief or judgment about a particular group of people, based on their perceived characteristics or attributes.

Sublimation

Redirecting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.

Superego

The moral and ethical component of personality that internalizes societal standards, values, and ideals, serving as the conscience and enforcing moral judgments and standards of behavior.

Superordinate Goals

Common objectives or shared interests that require cooperation and mutual effort from conflicting parties, often leading to reduced intergroup conflict and improved relations.

Terror - Management Theory

A social psychological theory that explores how individuals cope with the existential anxiety and fear of mortality by adhering to cultural worldviews, beliefs, and values that provide meaning, significance, and a sense of immortality.

Thematic - Apperception Test

A projective psychological test used to assess personality and unconscious motives by presenting individuals with ambiguous pictures and asking them to create stories or narratives about what is happening in the pictures.

Tight Culture

Societies with strong social norms, strict rules, and low tolerance for deviance or nonconformity, leading to greater conformity and social control.

Trait

A relatively stable and enduring characteristic or pattern of behavior, thought, or emotion that distinguishes one individual from another and influences how they respond to different situations.

Trait Theory

A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions.

Unconditional Positive Regard

An attitude of acceptance, respect, and nonjudgmental regard toward individuals, regardless of their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, which fosters self-acceptance, authenticity, and personal growth.

Unconscious

A reservoir of thoughts, feelings, memories, and desires that are not consciously accessible to awareness but may influence behavior, emotions, and perceptions.

Walter Cannon

An American physiologist known for his research on homeostasis, stress response, and the fight-or-flight response, as well as coining the term 'homeostasis.'

William James

An American philosopher and psychologist known for his contributions to functionalism, pragmatism, and theories of consciousness, emotion, and the self, including the concept of the 'stream of consciousness.'

Yerkes - Dodson Law

A principle in psychology stating that there is an optimal level of arousal or stress that enhances performance on a task, with performance declining at both low and high levels of arousal.