kalebs Bio Exam 3 Chp 9-13

Autotroph

Makes its own food (e.g., plants via photosynthesis)

Heterotroph

Gets energy by consuming other organisms

Biochemical pathway

Series of chemical reactions in a cell

Aerobic

Requires oxygen

Anaerobic

Does NOT require oxygen

Cellular respiration

Process of breaking down glucose to make ATP

Fermentation

Anaerobic process that produces ATP without oxygen

Cellular Respiration Equation

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATP

Mitochondria Structure

-Outer membrane

-Inner membrane (folded into cristae)

-Matrix (inside space)

Think (O.I.M.)

Location of CO₂ produced

Krebs cycle (matrix)

ETC Location

Inner mitochondrial membrane

3 Stages of Cellular Respiration

1.Glycolysis

L.ocation-Cytoplasm

R.eactant-Glucose

P.roducts-2 Pyruvate, ATP,NADH

2.Krebs Cycle

L-Matrix

R-Acetyl CoA

P- CO2,ATP,NADH,FADH2

3.ETC

L-Inner Membrane

R-NADH,FADH2,O2

P-ATP,H2O

ATP Production

Total per glucose: ~36-38 ATP

Glycolysis: 2 ATP

Krebs: 2 ATP

ETC: 32-34 ATP

Fermentation Types

1.Lactic Acid

Example-Muscle Cells

Product-Lactate

ATP-2

2. Alcoholic

E-Yeast

P-Ethanol + CO2

ATP-2

ATP Hydrolysis

ATP broken down→ ADP + releases energy

ETC Final Electron Acceptor

Oxygen (O₂)

Anabolism vs Catabolism

Anabolism: builds molecules (uses energy)

Catabolism: breaks down molecules (releases energy)

Photon

Light particle

autotroph

An organism that makes its own food

electromagnetic spectrum

Visible at 1 end and Gamma at the other end

Pigment

Chlorophyll (Light-absorbing molecule)

Reaction center

Chlorophyll molecule where electrons are excited

Stoma (Stomata)

Opening for gas exchange!

minute pores (nostril) in the epidermis of the leaf or stem of a plant, forming a slit of variable width that allows movement of gases in and out of the intercellular spaces.

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO2+6H2O+light→C6H12O6+6O2

Know the wavelength range of visible light

R.O.Y.G.B.I.V.

Absorbed

taken in

Reflected

bounced off (Color we see)

Transmitted

Passes through

Pigments & Absorption

Chlorophyll a: absorbs blue & red (reflects green)

Chlorophyll b: similar but slightly different range

Carotenoids: absorb blue/green (reflect yellow/orange)

Reaction Center Pigment

Chlorophyll a

Chloroplast Structure

1.Thylakoid (light reactions)

2.Stroma (Calvin cycle)

Photosynthesis Stages

1.Light-DEpendent

-Location: Thylakoid

-Inputs: Light,H20

-Outputs: O2,ATP,NADPH

2.Light-INDEpendent (Calvin Cycle)

-L: Stroma

-I: CO2,ATP,NADPH

-O: Glucose

Photosystems: which one was DISCOVERED/FOUND first?

PSI was DISCOVERED FIRST...but PSII came first but

Electron Flow

-PSII gets electrons from water

-PSI gets electrons from PSII

Photorespiration

Occurs when Rubisco binds O₂ instead of CO₂ → wastes energy

Apoptosis

programmed cell death

Homeostasis

stable internal conditions

Feedback loop

Response system that regulate processes

Why Cells Communicate

1.Coordinate functions

2.Respond to environment

3.Maintain homeostasis

Types of Communication

1.Direct contact (gap junctions/plasmodesmata)

2.Local signaling (paracrine, synaptic)

3.Long-distance (hormones/endocrine)

Cell Junctions

Animal: gap junctions

Plant: plasmodesmata

3 Stages of Signaling

1.Reception - signal binds receptor

2.Transduction - signal converted inside cell

3.Response - cell reacts

Feedback Loops

Negative feedback stabilizes systems

Apoptosis Role

Removes damaged or unnecessary cells

Genome

ALL DNA

Gene

DNA segment coding for protein

Chromosome

Condensed DNA

Chromatin

loose DNA

Binary fission

a simple form of asexual reproduction where a single parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells, Prokaryotic division

Homologous chromosomes

same genes, Different parents

Sister chromatids

Identical copies of a chromosome

Daughter chromosomes

a single-stranded chromosome that results from the separation of sister chromatids during cell division separated chromatids

Somatic cells

all the "body cells" that make up your skin, organs, bones, blood, and connective tissue, excluding reproductive cells (sperm and eggs)

Body Cells

Gametes

Sex Cells

Centromere

Chromosome center

Kinetochore

protein attachment site

Spindle fibers

microtubules

Centrosome/Centriole

Organize spindle

Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Genome

Eukaryotes: multiple linear chromosomes

Prokaryotes: single circular chromosome

Chromosome Composition

60% protein + 40% DNA

Interphase

G1: growth

S: DNA replication

G2: prep

M Phase

where the condensed DNA is aligned and then separated

:Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase

:Cytokinesis

Longest Phase

Interphase

Chromosome Comparisons

-Homologous ≠ identical

- Sister chromatids = identical

-Daughter chromosomes = separated chromatids

Chromosome Movement

Spindle fibers pull chromosomes apart

Spindle Fibers

Made of microtubules (protein)

Microtubule Shortening

Shortens at chromosome end

Cytokinesis

Animal: cleavage furrow

Plant: cell plate

Mitosis Results

1 diploid → 2 diploid cells

Examples:

Human (46) → 2 cells with 46

Dog (78) → 2 cells with 78

Diploid (2n)

two sets

Haploid (n)

one set

Chiasma

crossover point

is the X-shaped point of contact where non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes cross over and exchange genetic material during meiosis

Meiosis Outcome

1 diploid → 4 haploid cells

Examples:

Human (46) → 4 cells with 23

Mitosis

Divisions: 1

Cells produced: 2

Chromosome #: same

Variation: None

Meiosis

Divisions: 2

Cells produced: 4

Chromosome #: half

Variation: High

Human Life Cycle

Mitosis → somatic cells (diploid)

Meiosis → gametes (haploid)

Reproduction

Sexual: 2 parents, variation

Asexual: 1 parent, identical

Meiosis Divisions

Meiosis I: separates homologous chromosomes

Meiosis II: separates sister chromatids

Meiosis I

Interphase I, Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Cytokinesis = 2 cells

Meiosis II

Same as 1 but with number 2 at the end of each step... Cytokinesis = 4 cells

Describe the events in Meiosis I

Prophase I (crossing over)

Metaphase I (pairs align)

Anaphase I (separate pairs/going opposite poles)

Telophase I (cytoplasm dividing)

Describe the events in Meiosis II

Same but "II" instead

Metaphase Alignment

Mitosis: single file

Meiosis I: homologous pairs

Where does Synapsis take place?

Prophase 1

Where does Tetrads take place?

Prophase 1

Where does Crossing over take place?

Prophase 1

List contributions to genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms (why are all gametes different?)

-Crossing over

- Independent assortment

- Random fertilization

Gametogenesis

1.Spermatogenesis: 4 sperm gametes

2.Oogenesis: 1 egg + polar bodies