Religous studies - Paper 1

Roman catholic (conservative Christians)

A major branch of Christianity, characterized by its beliefs in the authority of the Pope, the seven sacraments, and the traditions of the Church.

Evangelical protestants

A movement within Protestant Christianity that emphasizes the authority of the Bible, the need for personal conversion, and spreading the gospel.

Liberal Protestants

A group within Christianity that seeks to interpret religious teachings in a contemporary context, often prioritizing social justice, inclusivity, and messaging of the bible reason over traditional doctrine.

Literalist Christians

A group of Christians who interpret the Bible as literal truth, often rejecting symbolic or metaphorical readings, and holding firm beliefs in the accuracy of biblical accounts.

Non-literalist Christians

Christians who interpret the Bible in a non-literal manner, often considering cultural, historical, and literary contexts to understand its messages.

Creationist

A person who believes in the literal interpretation of the Genesis creation narrative, asserting that life on Earth was created by divine intervention, often rejecting evolutionary science.

Monotheism

Belief in only one God

Trinity

The Christian doctrine that defines God as one being in three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

Omnipotence

The attribute of God that signifies unlimited power, ability to do anything that is consistent with His nature.

Omnisicence

The attribute of God that signifies unlimited knowledge, knowing everything that can be known, including past, present, and future.

Omnipresence

The attribute of God that signifies being present everywhere at the same time, not limited by space or time.

Eternal

The quality of existing outside of time, having no beginning or end, often attributed to God.

Immanence

The belief that God is present and active within the creation, sustaining and interacting with the universe.

Transcendence

The belief that God exists beyond and independent from the physical universe, surpassing the limits of creation.

Characteristics of God in Christianity

• Omnipotent

• Omniscience

• Omnipresent

• Loving and merciful

• Justice and holiness

• Immanent

• Transcendent

• Eternal

• Holy trinity

• Eternal

This verse covers Imago Dei, and the intended role of humans in the bible

Genesis 1:26

“Then God said ‘Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all wild animals, and over all creatures that move along the ground”.

This verse furthers on the topic of Imago Dei and also can be used as evidence for Gender equality

Genesis 1:27

“So God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them”.

Isiah 66:13

"As a mother comforts her child, so will I comfort you; and you will be comforted over Jerusalem."

“All things have been committed to me by my Father. No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and those to whom the Son chooses to reveal him. “

Mathew 11:27

This verse emphasizes the unique relationship between Jesus and the Father, revealing the exclusivity of understanding God through the Son.

Difference between body and soul

The body is the physical form of a person, while the soul is considered the spiritual and immaterial essence that embodies one's consciousness and identity.

Imago Dei

The concept that human beings are created in the image and likeness of God, reflecting His attributes and qualities.

Fallen

The traditional Christian view of humanity's state after the original sin, resulting in separation from God and the introduction of sin into the world which we are all inclined to

“Do you not know that your bodies are temples of the Holy Spirit, which is in you, whom you have from God, and you are not your own: you were bought at a price. Therefore, honour God with your bodies”

1rst Corinthians 6:19-2

This verse emphasizes the importance of treating one's body with respect as it is a sacred dwelling for the Holy Spirit, implying a responsibility to honor God through one's physical being.

Carl Sagan - Humanist view on the nature of humans

“We are an intelligent species and perhaps the noblest things we are capable of are compassion and sacrifice”

“I have set before you life and death, blessings and curses. Now choose life and you and your children may live”

Deuteronomy 30:19

Highlights the importance of free will in making choices that affect life and wellbeing, urging individuals to choose life and blessings for themselves and future generations.

“But if serving the Lord seems undesirable to you, then choose for yourselves this day whom you will serve… But as for me and my household, we will serve the Lord."

Joshua 24:15

This verse emphasizes the significance of personal choice in one's faith and commitments. It presents a call to make a conscious decision regarding service to God, reflecting the values of devotion and family allegiance.

“You, my brothers and sisters, were called to be free. But do not use your freedom to indulge the flesh; rather, serve one another humbly in love."

Galatians 5:13

This verse conveys the message that true freedom comes with responsibility. It encourages individuals to use their freedom to serve others with love and humility, rather than for selfish purposes.

Mahatma Ghandi - Free will

“Freedom is not worth having if it does not include the freedom to make mistakes”

“The spirit gives life; the flesh counts for nothing. The words I have spoken to you-they are full of spirit and life

John 6:63

This verse highlights the distinction between spiritual and physical existence, suggesting that spiritual teachings bring true life and meaning. It emphasizes the importance of divine revelation over earthly matters.

“For what will it profit a man if he gains the whole world and forfeits his soul? Or what shall a man give in return for his soul”

Mathew 16:26

This verse questions the value of material wealth and success in comparison to one's spiritual well-being. It underscores the belief that true fulfilment comes from nurturing the soul rather than pursuing worldly gains.

Concupiscence

A term often used in theology to describe a strong desire or inclination towards sin and earthly pleasures, reflecting the human tendency to stray from moral principles.

ST. Agustine’’s view on Human nature

St. Augustine believed that human nature is inherently flawed due to original sin, which inclines individuals towards selfishness and away from God. He emphasized the necessity of divine grace for healing and redemption.

Bertrand Russel - Humanist view on Free will

“The Goodlife is one inspired by love and guided by knowledge”

Physicalism

The beleif that the world is nothing more than physical matter and its interactions, dismissing any non-physical entities such as the soul or spirit.

Soul

The unseen spiritual inner part of a person

Sin

An action which goes against the law of God often resulting in spiritual harm or moral failing.

Determinism

The philosophical view that all events, including moral choices, are determined completely by previously existing causes.

Predestination

The doctrine that God has eternally chosen those whom he intends to save, implying that events are predetermined by divine will.

Genetic determinism

The belief that genetic factors are the primary cause of human behaviour and traits, often suggesting individuals have little control over their actions.

Polytheism

The belief in or worship of multiple gods, each typically associated with different aspects of life or nature.

Ultimate reality

The overarching truth or highest existence that transcends the physical world, often viewed as divine or sacred in various religious traditions.

Thomas Aquinas’s view on human nature

Thomas Aquinas viewed human nature as fundamentally good, created by God, but also capable of sin due to free will. He believed that reason and faith work together to lead individuals towards moral truths and ultimate fulfilment.

Dualism

The belief in two fundamental principles, often contrasting, such as good and evil or mind and body, influencing existence and human experience.

Materialism

The view that nothing else exists except matter, all we have as human beings is a physical body, there is not soul or spirit

3 Parts of the soul

• Reason -Ability to think

• Spirit - Emotions

• Appetite - Desires and needs

Four types of religious experience

• Numinous experiences

• Conversion

• Prayer

• Miracles

Evidence of God from design

The argument suggesting that the complexity and order found in the universe indicates the presence of a designer, often interpreted as God.

William Paley’s analogy on the design of the universe

is a philosophical argument which compares the complexity of the universe to a watch, asserting that just as a watch requires a watchmaker, the universe requires a designer.

How can the argument of God’s design be challenged

Critics argue that natural processes like evolution can explain complexity without needing a designer. Additionally, they point to imperfections in nature as evidence against a perfect creator.

Cosmological arguement

The argument that everything that exists has a cause, ultimately leading to the conclusion that there must be an uncaused first cause, often equated with God.

Domino analogy for God

A metaphor illustrating that just as a line of dominoes falls due to an initial push, creation requires a first cause or initiator, which is often identified as God.

How can Aquinas’s argument on God be challenged

Critics question the necessity of a first cause, suggesting that the universe could be eternal or arise through quantum mechanics, challenging the idea that God is the only explanation for existence, and on how the theory should apply to God too.

Apparent Age Hypothesos

A theory suggesting that the Earth and universe were created with the appearance of age, allowing for a compatibility between scientific findings and a literal interpretation of creation in religious texts.

James Ussher

A 17th-century bishop known for calculating the date of creation as 9am on the 6th October 4004 BCE, using biblical genealogies.

Compatibilists

Philosophers who argue that free will and determinism are compatible, suggesting that human choices can be determined by prior events while still being free. This could apply to religion and science as well

Intelligent design

Is the belief that God guided evolution rather than only one or the other.

Scientific reason for creation

Refers to explanations based on empirical evidence and natural laws, such as the Big Bang theory and evolution, which contrast with religious interpretations of creation.

Scientists arguments against creationism

• That there is scientific evidence that there were around 14 billion years between the beginning of the universe and the appearance of humans

• That humans evolved from single celled organisms, not being created in one go

• The order of events in the creation story don’t align with scientific one.

Unanswered prayers

Refers to prayers that have not been answered by God, which raises questions about faith, God's presence, and the nature of divine intervention.

Christians responses to unanswered prayers

Christians often interpret unanswered prayers as God's way of teaching patience, strengthening faith, or redirecting desires according to His will. They may believe that God answers in ways not always visible or understandable, emphasizing trust in His divine plan.

Psalm 111:2

“Great are the works of the Lord; they are pondered by all who delight in them”

This verse suggests that scientific inquiry and understanding of the natural world can be considered a form or appreciating God’s creation.

“Science is not only compatible with spirituality but it is a profound source of spirituality” - Carl Sagan

Here Sagan answers that science can inspire awe and wonder akin to religious experiences, providing a different form of spiritual fulfilment through the understanding of the universe.

“The lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it”

Genesis 2:15

This verse depicts the biblical account of God placing humankind in the Garden of Eden, emphasizing the responsibility of stewardship and care for creation as a divine mandate.

“The righteous care for the needs of their animals”

Proverbs 12:10

This verse highlights the importance of compassion and ethical treatment of animals, suggesting that righteousness includes stewardship towards all living beings.

“You have made them a little lower than the angels and crowned them with glory and honour”
Psalms 8:5-6

This scripture emphasizes the elevated status of humanity in creation, suggesting that people hold a unique place in the hierarchy of beings, deserving of respect and dignity.

Five freedoms for animals

A set of welfare standards for animals that ensure their basic needs are met, including freedom from hunger, discomfort, pain, fear, and the ability to express normal behaviors.

“In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth”

Genesis 1:1

This verse signifies the foundational belief in a divine creator responsible for the origins of the universe, highlighting the power and authority of God in establishing all that exists.

“For him we live and move and have our being”

Acts 17:28

This scripture expresses the belief that human existence and vitality are fundamentally connected to God, emphasizing dependence on the divine for life and movement.

“He is before all things, and in him all things hold together”

Colossians 1:17

This verse asserts the pre-eminence of Christ in creation, affirming that all existence is sustained through Him, emphasizing His central role in the universe.

“For God loved the world that he gave his one and only son, that whoever who believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life”

John 3:16

This verse encapsulates the Christian belief in God's love for humanity, highlighting the concept of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ, offering eternal life as a gift to believers.

“Where can I go from your Spirit? Where can I flee from your presence”

Psalms 139:7

This scripture reflects the belief in God's omnipresence, illustrating that no one can escape God's presence or Spirit, affirming His constant watchfulness and closeness to humanity.

“For the LORD gives wisdom; from his mouth come knowledge and understanding”
Proverbs 2:6

This verse emphasizes the belief that wisdom and understanding are divine gifts from God, highlighting the importance of seeking His guidance and knowledge.

Sapere Aude

“Have courage to think for yourself”

Carl sagan’s quote on the ultimate reality

“The cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be” Reflecting the humanist view that the universe and natural world itself is the ultimate reality rather than God.

Moral evil

Human actions or behaviours that cause harm or suffering, often resulting from human choices and free will.

Natural Evil

Evil that isn’t caused by human beings (e.g natural disasters)

Moral behaviour

The actions that people take in life whether good or bad that align with ethical standards and societal norms.

Why evil and suffering can be argued against Theists

• If God is omnibenevolent he should want to remove all suffering and evil from the world

• If God is omnipotent he should be able to remove all evil and suffering from the world

• As the creator of the world God can be seen as responsible for the natural evils of the world

How Christians respond to the problems of evil

Christians may argue that suffering and evil serve a greater purpose, encourage personal growth, or bring people closer to God. They often emphasize faith, prayer, and communal support as ways to cope with evil and suffering.

Inconsistent triad

A philosophical concept that highlights the apparent contradiction between God's omnibenevolence, omnipotence, and the existence of evil, suggesting that not all three can coexist.

Different Christian beliefs on the cause of evil

Christians hold various beliefs about the cause of evil, including the idea that it stems from human free will, the devil, original sin, or is a test of faith. Some also view it as a result of spiritual warfare or a means through which God can demonstrate His justice and mercy.

Theodicy

Theodicy is the theological study that attempts to justify God's goodness and omnipotence in the face of the existence of evil and suffering. It seeks to explain why a benevolent God would allow pain and injustice in the world.

ST Irenaeus’ view on the original sin

That the original sin was a result of a mistake made by Adam, and Eve because they weren’t mature enough to understand what was happening, they needed to experience suffering in order to develop and mature

Soul making

A concept in theology, particularly associated with Irenaeus, suggesting that the purpose of life and the presence of evil is to develop virtues and spiritual growth in individuals.

How Christians deal with suffering

• Referring to the bible for guidance

• Reading parables

• Prayer

• Following Jesus’ example

• Following conscience

Salvation in Christianity

The deliverance from sin and its consequences, believed by Christians to be achieved through faith in Jesus Christ, granting eternal life with God.

Ensoulment

The process by which a human being receives a soul, often discussed in relation to when life begins and the moral implications of this belief.

Atheist and humanist beliefs on post-death

That nothing survives death, humans don’t have a soul and we are purely physical, material beings so when we die that is the end

What Christians believe about post-death

That humans have one earthly existence which is followed by an eternal life in the world to come, many believing that after death God will judge us and those who are deemed worthy are sent to heaven while those unworthy sent to hell. Or purgatory to be purified before entering heaven.

Purgatory

A temporary state of purification for souls before entering heaven, where individuals atone for their sins.

“So will it be with the resurrection of the dead. The body that is sown perishable, it is raised imperishable; it is sown in dishonour, it is raised in glory; it is sown in weakness, it is raised in power; it is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. If there is a natural body, there is also a spiritual body”

1 Corinthians 15:42-44

This biblical passage describes the belief in the resurrection of the dead, emphasizing the transformation from a perishable, earthly body to an imperishable, spiritual one after death.

“In my Father’s house are many mansions: if it were not so, I would have told you. I go to prepare a place for you”

John 14:2

This verse expresses the belief that Jesus is preparing eternal dwelling places in heaven for his followers, assuring them of the promise of an everlasting home with God.

“No eye has seen, no ear has heard and no mind has imagined what God has prepared for those who love him”

1 Corinthians 2:9

This passage conveys the belief that the rewards and experiences awaiting believers in heaven are beyond human comprehension, highlighting the depth of God's promise to those who love Him.

“Then the King will say to those on his right, ‘Come, you who are blessed by my father, inherit my kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”

Matthew 25:34

This verse illustrates the belief in eternal life and God's kingdom, indicating that those who are blessed will receive their inheritance in heaven, prepared for them from the beginning of creation.

“And these will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life”

Matthew 25:46

This verse emphasizes the belief in a final judgment where the righteous will be granted eternal life, while those who are unrighteous will face eternal punishment, reinforcing the consequences of one's actions in life.

“And if your hand causes you to sin cut it off. It is better for you to enter life crippled than with two hands and go to hell, to unquenchable fire”

Mark 9:43

This passage underscores the seriousness of sin and the lengths one should go to avoid it, emphasizing that it is preferable to suffer in this life than to face eternal damnation.

“Then he will say to those on his left, ‘Depart from me, you cursed into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels”

Matthew 25:41

This verse reflects the belief in divine judgment, where those who are cursed are separated from God's kingdom and condemned to eternal punishment designed for the devil and his angels.

“For nothing unclean will enter (heaven)”

Revelation 21:27

“Make friends quickly with your accuser hand you over to the judge, and the judge to the guard, and you be put in prison, Truly I say to you, you will never get out until you have paid the last penny”
Matthew 5:25-26

This passage teaches the importance of reconciliation and settling disputes amicably before facing legal consequences. It emphasizes the urgency of addressing conflicts to avoid harsher penalties.

“Therefore, confess your sins to one another and pray for one another, that you may be healed. The prayer of a righteous person has great power as it is working”

James 5:16

This verse highlights the importance of communal confession and prayer in Christian practice. It suggests that mutual support and intercession within the community lead to spiritual healing and emphasizes the efficacy of a righteous person's prayers.