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Charge of the Light Brigade (1854) by Lord Alfred Tennyson
A patriotic poem written by Britain's leading poet during the years of the Crimean War. The author wanted to celebrate and honor the courage of the British soldier, but also expose the incompetence of the British military leadership that wasted the lives of its fighting men.
White Man's Burden (1899) by Rudyard Kipling
A politically motivated poem written by the most popular poet and author in Britain. Kipling was a dedicated imperialist who loved the British Empire and believed that the British had a duty to civilize the colonial people of the Empire. He wrote the poem after the American victory in the Spanish-American War encouraging the US to seize control over the Philippines. The poem is associated with the idea of racial superiority and paternalism.
Origin of Species (1859) by Charles Darwin
This controversial scientific text was written by a British naturalist, based on research he conducted during a two-year voyage around the world. His careful observations of plant and animal life led to his notion that all life is in a constant state of change (evolution) and the strongest thrive (survival of the fittest.
Interpretation of Dreams (1899) by Sigmund Freud
This masterpiece of psychological theory is considered the foundation of psychoanalysis. Freud believed that every experience and thought in the mind is preserved in the memory and that unlocking these memories can serve as a tool to treat mental illness.
J'Accuse! (1898) by Emil Zola
This angry essay was written by a French journalist who was furious with the anti-Semitic injustice of the Dreyfus Affair in 1890's France. He accused the French Army leadership of knowingly convicting an innocent man of treason rather than acknowledge their error. It led to the full pardon of Dreyfus.
The Communist Manifesto (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
One of the most influential political works ever written. It is the foundation of the theory of communism and would inspire generations of revolutionaries all over the world. It demanded an end to private property, violent revolution, and class struggle.
belle epoch
French term meaning "Beautiful Age;" it refers to the decades leading up to World War I when Europe was at its peak of power.
balance-of-power
The European diplomatic goal of preventing any single nation from dominating the entire continent. Britain was especially dedicated to it.
Crimean War (1853-1856)
This was the first major war fought between European nations since the Napoleonic Wars. Russia faced an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France. Russia was defeated.
Balkan Peninsula
The large geographic region of southeastern Europe that includes Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania, Bosnia, and other nations.
"the sick man of Europe"
Nickname of the Ottoman Empire in the 1800's and early 1900's as it slowly declined as an European power.
Bosporus and Dardanelles
The two strategic straits that connect the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Turkey has controlled the straits for centuries. Russia has long coveted the waterways.
Florence Nightingale
A British nurse who led a successful public campaign to force the military and government to allow female nurses to work at the front during the Crimean War. She is credited with professionalizing nursing.
nationalism
An emotional political philosophy that glorifies the nation as the most fundamental human bond that unites the people of a specific background to the land where they live.
"the sun never sets on the British Empire"
This is a famous description of the British Empire in the late-19th century when it spanned the globe and encompassed hundreds of millions of people.
Splendid Isolation
Term for the foreign policy of Britain following the Crimean War. The British focused on building and strengthening their Empire and limited their interactions with other European nations.
Great Reform Bill of 1867
Law passed by Parliament that extended voting rights to urban working-class men in Britain. It reflected the growing influence of the working-class.
Franchise Act of 1884
Law passed by Parliament that extended voting rights to rural laborers (peasants) in Britain. This basically enfranchised the entire adult male population.
universal manhood suffrage
Political term that means that all adult men have the right to vote.
Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU)
The organization that led the fight for voting rights for British women.
Emmaline Pankhurst
She was the leading figure in the struggle for voting rights for British women. Her daughters helped her in the fight. She led the WSPU.
Second French Empire (1852-1870)
Term for the government of Emperor Napoleon III of France. It was a dynamic period in French history. The Second Empire ended in France's military defeat in the Franco - Prussian War in 1870.
plebiscite
A direct vote by the common people on a significant issue in which the choice is between "yes" and "no."
Emperor Napoleon III
He was a nephew of Napoleon who became the ruler of France, first as the President of the Second Republic and later as Emperor.
Suez Canal
One of the great engineering feats of the 19th century, it links the Mediterranean and Red Seas. It was built in the 1860's by French engineers and financed by British loans.
Piedmont - Sardinia
The most important of the various Italian states in the 19th century, it led the struggle to unify the peninsula into a single nation.
Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
The conflict that led to the unification of the modern German nation. It was carefully orchestrated by Chancellor Bismarck of Prussia as an opportunity to unite all Germans against the Second French Empire. France was decisively defeated.
Third French Republic (1870-1940)
It was set up following France's humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and lasted until France's humiliating defeat in World War II. It was a period of dynamic culture, but bitterly divided politics.
Paris Commune
Name of a radical group that seized control of the city government of Paris during the German siege of the city in the final months of the Franco-Prussian War. They were brutally crushed by the French Army in 1871.
Dreyfus Affair
The biggest political crisis of the Third Republic, it centered on a French Jewish Army office, Alfred Dreyfus, accused of spying for the hated Germans. It tore the nation apart politically.
Anti-Semitism
The hatred of the Jewish religion and people.
Theodor Herzl
An Austrian Jewish journalist who was so shocked at the violent anti-Semitism of the Dreyfus Affair that he began to advocate for the creation of an independent Jewish nation.
Zionism
The political and cultural movement that pushed for the creation of the state of Israel.
Emancipation Edict of 1861
Historic proclamation issued by Tsar Alexander II of Russia ending centuries of serfdom in that nation. 50,000,000 serfs were changed in status to free peasantry.
anarchy
A radical political movement that advocates the destruction of all forms of government. It has taken on the meaning of chaos and disorder.
Trans-Siberian Railroad
A major accomplishment of Russian engineering, it stretches 7,000 miles across Siberia all the way the Russia's Pacific coast.
Austria-Hungary (aka Dual Monarchy)
A vast state in central Europe that was formed when the Austrians granted equal rights to the Hungarian minority in the old Austria Empire.
Ausgleich
The German term for the 1867 decision by the Austrian government to elevate the Hungarians to equal status within the Empire. It was done in hopes of saving the Empire from ethnic disintegration.
Count Cavour
The Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia who led the struggle to complete the unification of various Italian states into a single kingdom
defensive alliance
A military alliance where each partner is pledged to defend every other member should any be attacked by another nation.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Italian nationalist leader who had worked closely with Giuseppe Mazzini in 1848. During the struggle to unify Italy in 1860, he led the Red Shirts in liberating southern Italy.
Red Shirts
An Italian nationalist group formed by Garibaldi. The Red Shirts seized Sicily and the southern regions of the Italian peninsula and later turned the area over to the new Kingdom of Italy.
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck
The political leader of Prussia and later, the new German Empire. He spent years carefully planning the unification of Germany under Prussia's dominance. He steered the new nation for 20 years.
Ems Dispatch
A famous telegram sent from Kaiser Wilhelm I of Prussia to Chancellor Bismarck. It described a friendly meeting between the Kaiser and the French ambassador. Bismarck changed the wording to provoke a war with France.
Alsace-Lorraine
An historic region laying between France and Germany. The population is ethnically German, but had been under French control for centuries. It was fought over for decades.
reparations
Term for money paid by the defeated to the victors following a war.
Kulturkampf
Bismarck's campaign to undermine the political and cultural influence of the Catholic Church in Germany. He ordered Catholic schools closed and the Jesuits out of the country. His efforts ended in failure.
social welfare
Term for governmental programs aimed at helping the vulnerable and the poor. Examples include financial support for poor families, health care, and financial support for the elderly.
pensions
Term for financial support given to retired older workers.
Three Emperors League
A Bismarck created military alliance between Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary. It failed due to hostility between Austria and Russia.
Reinsurance Treaty
A Bismarck created alliance between Germany and Russia. It was allowed to lapse after Bismarck was removed by Kaiser Wilhelm II.
Triple Alliance
A Bismarck forged military defensive alliance between Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary. It lasted until the start of World War I in 1914.
Kaiser Wilhelm II
The emotional and aggressive ruler of Germany from 1888 - 1918. His decisions played a role in pushing Europe into World War I.
Impressionism
Major European art movement of the late-19th century. Artists focused less on realistic detail and more on the impression of light and color.
Post-Impressionism
Major European art movement that evolved from Impressionism. It was characterized by even more primitive forms and colors.
Sigmund Freud
An Austrian neurologist who developed the therapy of doctor and patient conversations that became known as "psychoanalysis." He also argued that there is both a conscience and unconscience minds.
psychoanalysis
A therapy in psychology that focuses on exploring the unconscience mind and its role in our behavior.
Albert Einstein
Brilliant German physicist who's Theory of Relativity challenged Newton's theories. He later played an important role in the development of a nuclear bomb.
Theory of Relativity
Einstein's radical idea about time and space. The equation E=mc2 is one of the most famous in history.
Charles Darwin
Famed British naturalist who shook up the scientific and religious communities with his assertion that all organic life evolved from a simple, primitive source. His theory of evolution remains controversial.
natural selection
The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment survive and produce more offspring.
"survival of the fittest"
Darwin's argument that nature is dominated by the strongest of any species and that the weak are culled from the herd.
Social Darwinism
The political and cultural movement that applied Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest to nations, races, and corporations.
Scramble for Africa
Historical description of the rush of European nations to claim colonies in Africa during the final decades of the 19th century.
Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
An international conference hosted by Bismarck and focused on peacefully resolving European colonial claims in Africa.
Fashoda Crisis
A tense confrontation between France and Britain over the control of an oasis in the Sahara Desert that both nations viewed as strategically important for the construction of an African rail line.
Triple Entente
A military defensive alliance formed by France, Russia, and Britain to counter-balance the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
Nobel Peace Prize
Created by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish businessman who made a fortune making weapons and explosives, endowed an annual prize to honor groups and individuals who fight for peace.
Bertha von Suttner
An Austrian aristocratic woman who was a leading pacifist activist. She was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 1905.
Geneva Convention
These are a series of four (4) international agreements dedicated to creating rules to govern warfare, including the treatment of wounded soldiers and prisoners-of-war.
Modern Olympic Games
An international sports competition that was revived as a means of fostering peaceful interactions between nations. The first modern games were held in Athens in 1896.
Baron Pierre de Coubertin
French aristocrat who spent years building support for the modern Olympic Games. He succeeded when the first Olympics were held in Athens with over a dozen nations in attendance.
"The Ballet Rehearsal" by Edgar Degas
"The Tiny Dancer" by Edgar Degas
"Luncheon of the Boating Party" by Pierre-Auguste Renoir
"The Thinker" by Auguste Rodin
"The Red Dog" by Paul Gauguin
"Sunday on the Island of la Grande Jatte" by Seurat
"Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" by Pablo Picasso
"Liberty Leading the People" by Eugene Delacroix
"The Scream" by Edvard Munch
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