week 10: appraising qual designs, sampling, data collection

characteristics of QUAL research design

flexible + capable of adjusting to what is learned during data collection

benefits from ongoing data analysis (reads like a book)

triangulation of various sources

researcher need to be intensely involved and reflexive

emergent - evolving as researcher makes ongoing decisions

(holistic: truly/deeply understand things better)

ethnography

(culture) labor-intensive fieldwork

wide range of data sources and 3 broad types of info: cultural behavior, cultural artifacts, cultural speech

ethnography assumptions

cultures guide the way people structure their experiences (understand their experiences)

ethnography - emic perspective

(insider view), reveal tacit knowledge - deeply embedded, almost subconscious info

major challenge is gaining entry

ethnography - participant observation

product - in depth, holistic portrait of culture under study

macroethnography

externally designed cultures

a. indigenous ppl in new zealand

focused ethnography

nurses working in ED

phenomenology

(experience)

description and interpretation of people’s lived experience

asks: what is the essence of phenomenon as experienced by ppl and what does it mean?

acknowledges ppl’s physical ties to their world - “being in the world

descriptive phenomenology

Philosophy of Husserl and his question “What do we know as persons?”

1. Describes human experience 

2. Portrayal of ordinary conscious experience of everyday life—a depiction of “things” as people experience them (almost, objectively vivid human experience)

3. Hearing, seeing, believing, feeling, remembering, deciding, and evaluating

4. May involve maintaining a reflexive journal

Phases of descriptive phenomenological study

Bracketing, Intuiting, Analyzing, Describing

descriptive phenomenological study - bracketing

identifying and holding in abeyance preconceived beliefs and opinions about the phenomenon under study (in an effort to remove researcher’s subjective experiences and thoughts)

ex. reflexive journal

descriptive phenomenological study - Intuiting

occurs when researchers remain open to the meanings attributed to the phenomenon by those who have experienced it

descriptive phenomenological study - analyzing

extracting significant statements, categorizing, and making sense of essential meanings

Interpretive Phenomenology

Based on philosophy of Heidegger; Heideggerian: hermeneutics as a basic characteristic of human existence

1. hermeneutic circle

Emphasis on interpreting and understanding experience, not just describing it; bracketing does not occur.

1. Relies on in-depth interviews and supplementary data sources: texts, artistic expressions

Interpretive Phenomenology - Gadamer: the hermeneutic circle

Heidegger did not think bracketing was impossible, we need to constantly check in and think about your perception for a while THEN come back to interview - constant interpretation and reevaluation 

1. Reading a book and the text makes you think about smth → you look up and think at the wall, create new idea → look down and read with this new idea in mind 

(the idea of constant interpretation and constant revaluation your understanding

Grounded Theory

1. Focuses on the discovery of a basic social psychological problem that a defined group of people experience

2. Elucidates social psychological processes and social structures

   1. Basic social processes (BSP) 

3. Has a number of theoretical roots—e.g., symbolic interaction

4. Originally developed by sociologists Glaser and Strauss

grounded theory - methods

1. Developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967), whose theoretical roots were in symbolic interaction: how people make sense of social interactions

2. Has contributed to the development of many middle-range theories of phenomena relevant to nurses

3. Primary data sources: in-depth interviews with 20 to 30 people; may be supplemented with observations, written documents

4. Data collection, data analysis, and sampling occur simultaneously.

Grounded Theory - analysis

1. Constant comparison - used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories

   1. Categories elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier so that commonalities and variations can be detected

   2. Helps see themes emerge d/t constant look

2. Focus is on understanding a central concern or core variable.

3. A basic social process (BSP) explains how people come to resolve the problem or concern.

Alternatives to Grounded Theory

1. Nurse researchers also use an approach called constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2014). Charmaz regards Glaser and Strauss’s grounded theory as having positivist roots (too objective). 

Other Types of Qualitative Research

Case study, narrative analysis, descriptive qual, Research w ideological persepectives (critical theory, feminist, participatory action research)

Case study

Thorough description of single or small number of cases → case can be individuals, families, groups, organizations, or communities

Data collected over extended period of time

Unique situation that happens infrequently is being described

Narrative Analysis

Looking at texts to figure out how authors or contributors viewed themselves

Why was the story told this way? In what environment was this written?

Descriptive Qualitative Studies

Eclectic in designs and methods, based on general premises of constructivist inquiry

Seek to holistically describe phenomena as they are perceived by ppl who experience them

Content analysis of narrative data w intent of understanding themes

Critical theory research

1. Concerned w critique of existing social structures and w envisioning new possibilities

2. critical ethnography focuses on raising consciousness in hope of effecting social change. Transformation is a key objective

3. Critical ethnographers attempt to increase political dimensions of cultural research and undermine/weaken oppressive systems

4. Goal = transformation, how could things be better 

Feminist research - research with ideological perspectives

similar to critical, but focus on gender domination, how discrimination shape women’s lives and their consciousness

Participatory action research (PAR) - research with ideological perspectives

Produces knowledge through close collab w groups that are vulnerable to control/oppression

What process is associated with descriptive phenomenology?

1. Emic perspective

2. Bracketing

3. Fieldwork

4. Lived human relation

b. Bracketing

Rationale: Descriptive phenomenology involves four steps, the first of which is bracketing. Emic perspective and fieldwork are associated with ethnography. Lived human relation is characteristic of phenomenology in general.

Tell whether the following is statement True or False.

When applying grounded theory methods, the researcher obtains the sample first and then collects data.

False

Rationale: When using grounded theory methods, data collection, data analysis, and sampling occur simultaneously.

Which phrase best describes the key objective of critical theory research?

1. Long-term data collection 

2. Gender domination

3. Transformation 

4. Vulnerable groups

c. Transformation

Rationale: A key objective of critical theory research is transformation. Data collection over time is common in case studies. The effect of gender domination and discrimination is associated with feminist research. Groups or communities vulnerable to control or oppression are associated with participatory action research.

Appraisals of Designs

Less strong guidelines compared to quantitative research

Abstract and more nuanced approach

Sampling and Data Collection in Qualitative Studies

guided by desire for information-rich data source

Unlike QUANT - we don’t want generalize, or random sampling

Representatives not a key issue - seeking out specific characteristics

types of qual sampling

convenience sampling

snowball sampling

purposive sampling

theoretical sampling

Convenience (volunteer) sampling

not preferred approach but economical

snowball sampling (network sampling)

Sample might be restricted to a small network of acquaintances

Ex: does anyone here belong to a support group? can i give you a flyer to see if you know anyone who is caring for people in that situation

purposive sampling

 Researchers deliberately choose the cases that will best contribute to the study

1. Maximum variation sampling - range of variation ex. junior, senior, bats

2. Extreme/deviant case sampling - most unusual / extreme informants  

3. Typical case sampling - most average of type of phenomenon 

4. Criterion sampling - predetermined criteria for importance → nursing students but only want seniors

5. Confirming and disconfirming cases

Theoretical sampling

1. involves decisions about where to find data to develop an emerging theory optimally

   1. Preferred sampling method in grounded theory research

      1. Constant comparison, going from data to theory 

   2. Involves selecting sample members who best facilitate and contribute to the development of the emerging theory

(ex. caregivers for people with head cancer are mostly spouses that had to stop working, then go back to the sample to see if you can enroll people who are specifically spouses of a person with cancer that does not work

Sample Size

1. Variable - no explicit, formal criteria

2. Sample size determined by informational needs - usually smaller

3. Decisions to stop sampling guided by data saturation

   1. Once you start hearing same stories over and over again, you might decide you’ve reached saturation - adequate sample size

4. data quality affects sample size

Sampling in Main Qualitative Traditions: Ethnography

1. Mingling with many members of the culture—a “big net” approach and narrow 

2. Multiple interviews with smaller number of key informants

   1. Emeic view

3. Typically involves sampling things as well as people 

(looking for gatekeeper and people who have that inside knowledge)

Sampling in Main Qualitative Traditions - phenomenology

smallest size of them all, aim towards saturation, fewer than 15 

2 principles guide selection

1. Participants must have experienced phenomenon of interest.

2. They must be able to articulate what it is like to have lived that experience. 

   May sample artistic or literary sources

Sampling in Main Qualitative Traditions - grounded theory

Typically involves samples of 20 to 30 people

Selection of participants who can best contribute to emerging theory (usually theoretical sampling) 

1.  - start w convenience, but as theory emerges, method can change 

Critically Appraising Qualitative Sampling Plans

Appropriateness

Adequacy - we want rich data; are these participants giving you the best data

Transferability - am I seeing similarities btwn study samplings

No such thing as perfect research study! - author must explain why they make certain choices

DATA collection

Methods may change as study progresses

In-depth interview most common

Observation also common

Self-Report TEchniques

Unstructured interviews, semi structured interview, Focus group interviews, Diaries, photo elicitation

Unstructured interviews

1.  totally open ended, you don’t know what you don’t know, do not impose structure 

   1. Conversational, totally flexible

   2. Use of grand tour questions (overarching questions)

Semi structured interview

use of a topic guide

just a few overarching questions

(the more structured, the more limited the response)

Focus group interviews

Interviews in small groups (5 to 10 people), audio recorded and transcribed

Led by a moderator

Diaries

Source in historical research, provide intimate detail fo everyday life

Photo elicitation

Interview stimulated and guided by photographic images

Photovoice: asking participants to take photos themselves and interpret them

Gathering Qualitative Self-report Data

develop a construction of a phenomenon that is consistent with that of participants.

Goal requires researchers to overcome communication barriers and to enhance the flow of information. Get at the essence of phenomenon

Qualitative Observational methods

1. unstructured observation in naturalistic settings, can add richness to audio recording → observing the attitude but the presence can alter participant’s attitude

2. Includes participant observation

   1. The physical setting

   2. The participants

   3. Activities

   4. Frequency and duration

   5. Process

   6. Outcomes

Recording Observations

1. Logs (field diaries)

2. Field notes - researcher acknowledging their presence, can’t remove self but will reflect

   1. Descriptive (observational) notes

   2. Reflective notes

      1. Researcher’s personal experiences

      2. Reflections

      3. Progress in the fields

Evaluation of Unstructured Observational Methods

1. Excellent method for capturing many clinical phenomena and behaviors

2. Observers may lose objectivity in sampling, viewing, and interpreting observations - that’s ok but have to be aware of this 

3. Emotional involvement might become a concern.

4. Researchers in their member role may develop a myopic view on issues of importance to the group. 

   1. Want ot have multiple researchers to triangulate 

5. The success of participant observation depends on the observer’s observational and interpersonal skills.

Tell whether the following statement is True or False.

Sampling in qualitative research is guided more by the desire for rich sources of information than by the need for random selection.

1. True

Rationale: Selection of sample members for qualitative research is guided by the desire for information-rich sources. The representativeness of the sample is not a key aspect, and random selection is not considered productive.

Tell whether the following statement is True or False.

A focus group typically involves at least 10 to 15 people.

b. False

Rationale: A focus group usually involves interviews with small groups, ranging in size from 5 to 10 people. 

Tell whether the following statement is True or False.

In qualitative studies, observation is unstructured.

1. True

Rationale: Observation with a qualitative study is unstructured and occurs in naturalistic settings.