Unit 2 Vocab

2025 CED

cognition

the processes involved with acquiring, storing, and using information related to thinking and knowing

executive functions

a set of cognitive functions that allow individuals to plan, set goals, focus attention, and control impulsive behavior

schema

a mental framework that helps you organize and interpret information resulting from past experiences

assimilation

the process of integrating new information into existing schemas.

accommodation

the process of adjusting existing schemas or creating new ones to accommodate new information

prototype

a mental representation of the most typical example of a category or concept that exemplifies the characteristics of that category

multi-store model

a theory that explains memory in terms of separate storage systems for short-term and long-term memory

sensory memory

the initial, brief storage of sensory information that lasts only a few seconds and is specific to each sense

iconic memory

sensory memory that retains visual information, often for less than a second

echoic memory

sensory memory that retains auditory information, typically lasting 3-4 seconds

short-term memory

the limited, active, and readily available storage of information for short periods of time with a capacity of about 7 items

long-term memory

the type of memory that stores information for extended periods, potentially for a lifetime, and has a virtually unlimited capacity

encoding

the process of transforming information into a state that can be stored as memories

storage

the maintenance of encoded information over time, allowing for later retrieval

retrieval

the process of accessing stored memories and bringing them into conscious awareness

working memory

a limited capacity system that temporarily holds and processes information for cognitive tasks such as reasoning and comprehension

central executive

the component of working memory that coordinates attention and processing among the different memory subsystems

phonological loop

a component of working memory that processes and stores verbal and auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

a component of working memory that processes and stores visual and spatial information

structural processing

the shallow, visual encoding of words based on their structure and physical appearance

phonetic processing

the shallow, acoustic encoding of words based on their sound and phonetic characteristics

semantic/elaborative processing

the deep, meaningful encoding of words based on their meaning, association, and context

self-reference effect

the enhanced encoding and recall of informtion relevant and meaningful to oneselfThis phenomenon occurs when individuals find it easier to remember information that relates to their own experiences, feelings, or personal situations.

mnemonic device

a memory aid, often using vivid imagery and organizational devices to help enhance recall

method of loci

a mnemonic device that involves visualizing a familiar place and associating items to remember with specific locations within that place; eg. mind palace

chunking

a system of organization in which information is grouped into familiar, manageable units, which aids in memory retention and recall; often occurs automatically

categories

a system of organization in which information is grouped into related sections to improve memory retention and organization

heiarchies

a system or organization in which information is divided into broad categories/topics, subdivide into narrower concerpts and eventually facts; aids in memory retention and strengthens associations and relationships

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than massed study

massed practice

a study technique where information is learned in large blocks of time without breaks, often leading to poorer long-term retention compared to distributed practice

distributed practice

a study technique that involves spreading out study sessions over time, promoting better retention and understanding compared to massed practice

serial position effect

the tendency to recall information better at the beginning and end of a list rather than the middle

primacy effect

the tendency to better recall the first items in a list

recency effect

the tendency to best recall the last/most recent items in a list

encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information due to insufficient encoding into memory

maintenance rehearsal

a memory retention strategy involving the repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory

elaborative rehearsal

a memory retention strategy that involves associating new information with existing memory to enhance retention

retrograde amnesia

a type of memory loss in which a person cannot recall memories from before an injury or traumatic event

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood, typically before the age of three or four; caused by the underdevelopment of memory processes and brain structures before this age

anterograde amnesia

a type of memory loss in which a person cannot form new memories after an injury or traumatic event

Alzheimer’s Disease

a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and changes in behavior and personality, typically starting with mild forgetfulness and advancing to severe impairment

retrieval cue

a stimulus that helps access memories stored in long-term memory, enhancing recall during the retrieval process

recall

retrieving information that is not currently on your conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time

recognition

identifying items previously learned or encountered

context-dependent memory

the improved ability to retrieve information when the context of the retrieval is similar to or the same as the context in which it was encoded

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall memories that are congruent with one’s current mood

state-dependent memory

the improved ability to recall information when in the same physiological or psychological state as when the information was encoded

testing effect

the phenoomenon where retrieval of information from memory improves subsequent retention of that information

metacognition

the awareness and understanding of one’s thought processes; thinking about our thinking

forgetting curve

the decline of memory retention over time; we initially forget rapidly and then it levels off

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to retrieve information from memory, often accompanied by a feeling of familiarity

proactive interference

the phenomemon where previously learned information interferes with the encoding of new information

retroactive interference

the phenomemon where newly learned information interferes with the retrieval of newly learned information

explicit memory

the long-term retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare; encoded through effortful processing

effortful processing

the encoding of information that requires attention and conscious effort

episodic memory

explicit memory of experienced events

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

autobiographical memory

a type of episodic memory that includes personal experiences and life events

implicit memory

long-term retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection; encoded through automatic processing

automatic processing

the unconscious encoding of incidental information and of well-learned information

classically conditioned responses

reflexive behaviors learned through conditioning, often in response to a specific stimulus

procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that includes the skills and actions needed to perform tasks such as riding a bike

prospective memory

the ability to remember to perform actions in the future, such as remembering to take medication at a specific time

source amnesia

a type of memory error where a person cannot recall the source of a memory, leading to confusion about its origin

misinformation effect

the phenomenon where misleading information distorts one’s memory of an event

imagination inflation

the increased confidence in a memory of an event that never occurred due to imagination of suggestion

constructive memory

the process by which memories are actively constructed and shaped based on present knowledge, beliefs, and expectations, rather than merely retrieved as exact copies of past events

creativity

the ability to generate new and original ideas, solutions, or artistic expressions

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions by exploring various perspectives and approaches

convergent thinking

the process of narrowing down the available solutions to determine the single best solution

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; slower but less error prone

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; faster but more error prone

functional fixedness

the inability to see a new use for an object, hindering problem-solving by limiting creativity

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to match particular prototypes; can lead us to ignore other pertinent information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

sunk-cost fallacy

the tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made, even when it is not reasonable to do so

gambler’s fallacy

the belief that future probabilities are influenced by past events, leading people to think that a losing streak will be followed by a win

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem one way, often one that has been successful in the past

framing

the way information is presented, whcih can influence people’s perceptions and decisions

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome

confirmation bias

the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct and overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited