Studied by 5 people
What are the definitions of abnormality?
Statistical Infrequency
Deviation from Social Norms
Faliure to Function Adequately
Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
What is Statistical Infrequency as a definition of abnormality?
someone is mentally abnormal if their mental condition is very rare in the population / the rarity of behaviour is judged objectively using statistics, comparing the individual’s behaviour to the rest of the population
What is an example of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality?
IQ - the average IQ is set to 100. In a normal distribution, most people have a score in the range on 85 - 115. Only 2% have a score below 70, meaning they are abnormal and are liable to receive a diagnosis of Intellectual Disability Disorder
What are strengths of Statististical Infrequency as a definition of abnormality?
appropriate for many mental illnesses and disorders where statistical criteria is available
What are some limitations of Statistical Infrequency as a definition of abnormality?
Unusual characteristics can be positive (high IQ)
subjectively determined cut-off point
sometimes appropriate (depression experienced by 10% of population so normal?)
What is deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality?
each society has unwritten rules (norms) for what is acceptable behaviour, and any behaviour that varies from these norms is deemed abnormal
What are some examples of deviations of social norms as an explanation of abnormality?
homosexuality (illegal in UK until 1967)
psychopathy (absence of prosocial internal behaviours)
What is a strength of using deviation from social norms as an explanation of abnormality?
distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviours
What are some limitations of using deviation from social norms as an explanation of abnormality?
susceptible to abuse (homosexuality in DSM)
cultural relativism (afro-carribean people in UK 7x more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia)
deviance related to context and degree (what is normal in one place is not in another)
What is faliure to function adequately?
a person is considered abnormal when they can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life, such as ability to interact with the world and meet their challenges
What are the major features of faliure to function adequately?
personal distress
maladaptive behaviour
irrationality and incomprehensibility
unpredictability and loss of control
observer discomfort
violation of moral standards
What is personal distress?
the person is upset or depressed
What is maladaptive behaviour?
behaviour that prevents an individual from achieving major life goals
What is irrationality and incomprehensibility?
there appears to be no good reason why the personal should choose to behave that way
What is unpredictability and loss of control?
behaviour is often highly unpredictable and inappropriate for the situation
What is observer discomfort?
behaviour that makes other people feel uncomfortable
What is violation of moral standards?
breaking laws, taboos, unwritten social rules, etc.
What is an example of Faliure to Funcion Adequately?
Schizophrenia (person has disturbing hallucinations which may lead to bizarre behaviour / individuals experience personal distress and can be unpredictable around others)
What are some strengths of faliure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?
recognises subjective experience
easy to judge objectively
represents a threshold for help
What are some limitatinos of faliure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?
the behaviour may be functional
judgement depends on who makes the decision
What is deviation from ideal mental health?
Jahoda(1958) identified 6 criteria necessary for ideal mental health. If a person lacks these, they may be considered abnormal
What are the 6 criteria for ideal mental health?
positive attitudes towards the self
self-actualisation of one’s potential
resistance to stress
personal autonomy
accurate perception of reality
adapting to the environment
What is positive attitude towards the self?
an individual should have high self-esteem and a strong sense of identity
What is self-actualisation of one’s potential?
a person should be focused on the future and their self growth and improvement
What is resitance to stress?
individuals should have effective coping strategies for dealing with life’s stresses
What is personal autonomy?
individuals should be independent and self reliant
What is an accurate perception of reality?
individuals should have a truthful and realistic view of the world
What is adapting to the environment?
this includes the ability to love, solve problems, adjust to new situations, and function at work and interpersonal relationships
What is a strength of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality?
it is a positive approach - focus on what is desirable rather than what is undesirable
What are some limitation of deviation of ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality?
equates physical and mental health
unrealistic criteria
cultural relativism
What are three types of phobias?
specific, social, agoraphobia
What is a specific phobia?
phobia of a specific object or situation
What is a social phobia?
phobia of a social situation
What is agoraphobia?
phobia of situations you cannot easily leave
What is an example of a specific phobia?
arachnophobia
What is an example of a social phobia?
fear of public speaking
What is an example of agoraphobia?
crowds, public transport
What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
anxiety, uncontrollable emotional responses
What is anxiety (as a characteristic of phobia)?
uncomfortably high and persistant state of being aroused, making it difficult to relax
What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
irrational beliefs, selective attention
What are irrational beliefs (with regard to phobia)?
irrational beliefs about phobic object which cannot be explained and have no basis in reality
What is selective attention(with regard to phobia)?
selective attention to phobic object, hard to tear attention away from
What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
panic, avoidance, endurance
What is panic (with regard to phobias)?
uncontrollable physical response (crying, freezing, screaming)
What is avoidance (with regard to phobias)?
physically adapting normal behaviour to avoid phobic object
What was the aim of the ‘Little Albert’ study by Watson and Rayner?
condition a baby to fear something which previously had a neutral response
What was the procedure for Watson and Rayner’s 1920 ‘Little Albert’ study?
white rat gave no response
repeatedly present rat and loud noise that scares baby
present rat without noise (hoping to scare baby)
What were the results of Watson and Rayner’s 1920 ‘Little Albert’ study?
phobia created in rat and other furry white objects but disappeared without maintenance
What is the two-process model with regard to phobia?
phobias are created through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning
What is positive reinforcement?
reward for behaviour increases likelihood of behaviour
What is negative reinforcement?
rewards for avoidance (reduction in fear) increases likelihood
What are the strengths of the two-processes model as an explanation of phobias?
real world application in treatment (SD)
links bad experiences and phobias (De Jongh, 2006 - 71% dentistry)
What is a limitation of the two-process model as an explanation of phobias?
cannot explain cognitive aspects
What behavioural treatments are available for phobias?
Systematic Desensitisation / SD
Flooding
What is systematic desensitisation?
designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through counterconditioning (new response of relaxation is learnt)
What are the three processes in systematic desensitisation?
anxiety heirarchy
exposure
relaxation
What is the anxiety heirarchy?
a list of behaviours put together by client and therapist that provoke anxiety arranged in order from least to most frightening
What is exposure in systematic desensitisation?
client exposed to phobic stimulus across several sessions moving up the heirarchy
When is systematic desensitisation considered successful?
when client can stay relaxed in situations high on the heirarchy
What is relaxation in systematic desensitisation?
therapist teaches client to relax as deeply as possible through breathing exercises. due to reciprical inhibition the relaxation response is learnt
What is reciprocal inhibition?
it is impossible to both feel fear and be relaxed at the same time
What are the strengths of systematic desensitisation?
research support
Gilroy (2019) found that at both 3 and 33 months, 42 SD patients were less fearful than a control group
useful for people with learning disabilities
flooding may leave them confused and distressed; shown to struggle with therapies that require complex thought
What are the limitations of SD as a method of treating phobias?
not appropriate for all phobias - Ohman suggests it is inappropriate for phobias with a evolutionary basis (fear or dark, heights, dangerous animals)
What is flooding?
counterconditioning a phobia by immediate and full exposure to the maximum level of phobic stimulus. stops phobic responses quickly as without the option of avoidance, the client quickly learns the phobic stimulus is harmless
What is a strength of flooding?
cost effective - can work in one session, compared with multiple SD sessions
What are the limitations of flooding?
highly traumatic - more stressful than SD, higher attrition rates, ethical issue - therapist knowingly causing harm to client?
inappropriate for those with learning disabilities
What are the emotional characteristics of depression?
anger (towards others or self)
sadness (persistant, very low mood)
guilt (helplessness and feelings of no value compared to others)
loss of interest/pleasure in usual hobbies or activities
What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?
shift in activity levels (lethargy, insomnia or hypersomnia)
change in eating behaviour
increase in aggression (shown towards self through self harm)
What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?
negative irrational thoughts
negative view of the world
absolutist thinking
What are the two cognitive explanations of depression?
Ellis’ ABC Model
Beck’s Negative Triad
What is the cognitive explanation of depression?
abnormality is the fault of faulty, irrational cognition, therefore mental disorders can be overcome by learning to use more appropriate ways of thinking
What is Beck’s negative triad?
negative view of the self
negative view of the world
negative view of the future
How does Beck’s negative triad lead to depression?
pessimistic view becomes self fulfilling prophecy and leads to cognitive bias
What are some strengths of Beck’s negative triad?
research support - Cohen found cognitive vulnerability predicted later depression
real world application - applications in screening (Cohen) and treatment (CBT) of depression
What is a limitation of Beck’s negative triad?
cannot explain biological factors - success of drug therapies suggests it is not just cognitive but also biological
What does Ellis’ ABC Model (1962) state is the cause of depression?
irrational beliefs
What are the three elements of the ABC Model of depression?
A - activating events
B - beliefs
C - consequences
What are irrational beliefs?
thoughts that do not allow people to be happy and free from pain
What causes irrational beliefs?
musturbatory thinking
What are the three main elements of musturbatory thinking?
i MUST do well
i MUST be approved of by people i find important
the world MUST give me happiness
What is a strength of Ellis’ ABC Model?
real world application - REBT (rational emotive behavioural therapy), supported by David (2018)
What are some limitations of Ellis’ ABC Model?
irrational beliefs may be realistic - depressed people gave more accurate predictions about disaster likelihood than ‘normal’ control group
cannot explain endogenous depression - only focuses on reactive depression, if depression not triggered by an external event, cannot explain
suggests patient is at fault
What are the main aims of CBT?
therapist and client identify problems and goals
maladaptive thoughts disputed by therapist
What are the three types of disputing in CBT?
logical, empirical, pragmatic
What does CBT involve?
clients asked to do homework to test thoughts
clients taught to monitor automatic maladaptive thoughts and examine evidence supporting in everyday life
behavioural activation in pursuing pleasurable activities
therapist provides unconditional positive regard
What are the strengths of CBT?
as effective in reducing symptoms and preventing relapse as antidepressants (March, 2007)
Keller (2000) - found that recovery rates for CBT and antidepressants combined was 85% compared to 55% just drugs
What are the limitations of CBT?
unsuitable for diverse clients - ineffective for severe cases and learning disabilities
some clients want to explore their past - CBT focuses os the ‘here and now’ which can cause frustration on those that want to explore their past
What are the behavioural characteristic of OCD?
compulsions
avoidance - take or resist actions to avoid objects/situations that trigger obsessions
What is a compulsion?
behaviour performed repeatedly to reduce anxiety (anxiety reduction is temporary)
What are the emotional charcteristics of OCD?
anxiety - resulting from obsession, constant worst-case scenario thinking that defines OCD
depression - result of inability to control anxiety- causing thought and OCD symptoms to take over sufferer’s life
What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?
obsessions
hypervigilance - permanent state of alertness where sufferer is looking for the source of their intrusive thoughts
selective attention - the individual with OCD is so focused on the objects connected to the obsession they cannot focus on things in the environment
What is an obsession?
intrusive, irrational and recurrent thoughts that seem to be unpleasant, catastrophic thoughts about potential dangers
What candidate genes are there for the cause of OCD?
COMT
SERT
5HTI-D
How does COMT explain OCD?
form of gene found to be more common in OCD sufferers which causes higher levels of dopamine
How does SERT explain OCD?
faulty gene can lead to lower levels of serotonin
How many different possible genes are involved in OCD?
230
What is a strength of the genetic explanation of OCD?
supported by Nestadt (2010) - MZ 68% DZ 31%, those with a family member with OCD are 4x more likely to develop (Marini, 2012)
What are some limitations of the genetic explanation of OCD?
not entirely genetic - Cromer (2007) found that over half OCD sample suffered a traumatic event and that OCD more severe in those who had experienced a trauma
alternative explanation - 2 process model, learnt when neutral stimulus associated with anxiety and maintained through avoidance of anxiety provoking stimulus. supported by success of ERP (similar to SD) (60% - 90% adults improved symptoms
What is the neural explanation of OCD?
abnormal brain circuits, abnormal neurotransmitters
What structures on the brain are involved in OCD?
worry circuit - OFC, basal ganglia, thamalus
parahippocampal gyrus
Note 
Flashcard (85)