Psychology Part 2

classical conditioning

associative learning where someone learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a relevant stimulus, resulting in a change in response to the previous stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without any learning

unconditioned response (UR)

reflexive unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

learned response that occurs to conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that can trigger a conditioned response

which of the four parts (UR, US, CR or CS) includes the way that animals adapt their behaviour to us?

Conditioned response

what happens to the connections between neurons after classical conditioning

the connections between neurons get stronger

neuroplasticity/neurogenesis

changes or adds pathways in the brain

learning

change in behaviour due to an experience acquiring a new response

acquisition

initial phase of learning in which a response is established

what happens to brain areas during extinction

brain areas related to association will fire less and less

spontaneous recovery

reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, typically after some time has passed since extinction

Hebb rule

cells that fire together, wire together

discrimination

organism learns to respond to one original conditioned stimulus but not the new stimulus that may be similar

what happened in the story of Little Albert

he was conditioned to be afraid of white rats by associating loud noises with rats and then became afraid of every white furry thing

why wasn’t the Little Albert experiment ethical

they didn’t follow up with him after the trial, and infants cannot consent

what part of the brain is associated with fear

amygdala

what is an example of an acquired threat

a gun

what is an example of a biological threat

a snake

preparedness

biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to particular type of stimuli

aversion

combination of feeling of disgust and a withdrawal or avoidance of something

conditioned taste aversion

acquired dislike or disgust for a food because it was paired with previous illness

evaluative conditioning

attempt to use negative emotions to alter people’s opinions (etc. Trump vs Hillary ads)

tolerance

a decrease in response to a drug used regularly

why is overdose more likely to happen in an unfamiliar environment

the body’s metabolism is different

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by rewards or punishments

classical conditioning indicates a ___ response

reflexive

operant conditioning indicates a ___ response

voluntary

reinforcement

process in which an event or reward that follows a response increases the likelihood of the reponse happening again

Edward Thorndike

measured time it took cats a puzzle, it shows that cats learned

Law and Effect

idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again in the same situation, but those not followed by satisfaction will be less likely to happen again

satisfaction

reached individual’s goal (usually to get a reward)

reinforcement

increases chances of behaviour

punishment

decreases future possibility of response

positive

stimulus is added

negative

stimulus is taken away

avoidance learning

a specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility of a stimulus occuring (etc leaving a concert early to avoid traffic)

escape learning

learning how to avoid something

give an example of positive reinforcement

laughing at your dads jokes makes him tell more jokes

give an example of negative reinforcement

taking aspirin when having a headache will increase further use of aspirin to remove pain

positive punishment

adding chores to punish a child for misbehaviour

negative punishment

no videogames as a punishment

shaping

reinforcing successive steps to a target response

chaining

linking together shaped behaviours into a more complex sequence of actions

applied behaviour analysis (ABA)

close observation, prompting and reinforcement to achieve a goal, usually used with people with Autism or Down syndrome

primary reinforcement

what we need to survive: food, water, shelter, sex

secondary reinforcement

things that we feel we need but don’t influence survival: money, facebook likes, etc.

generalization

conditioned response to one object is exhibited in the presence of a similar stimulus (etc. Little Albert and white furry things)

partial reinforcement

a certain number of responses must happen before the reward is available

discriminative stimulus

cue or event that indicates that a response will only happen do to something else (you only get the car if your parents are in a good mood)

discrimination (operant conditioning)

you are able to discriminating between what gets you a reward and what doesn’t (etc. your dad will let you have the car but your mom won’t, so you ask your dad)

latent learning

learning that is not immediately expressed by an organism until they are given a reward for doing so

what did the Tolman and Honzik experiment prove

that people/animals learn with or without a reward, but only demonstrate knowledge when a reward is presented

what is the SOR theory of learning

stimulus-organism-response theory: individuals actively process and analyze information according to their own interpretations

what is the SR theory and what types of learning fall under this category

learning is the result of responding to stimuli, classical and operational learning fall under this category

observational learning

changes in behaviour and increase in knowledge from watching others

what are the four processes involved in observational learning

attention, memory, ability to produce behaviour, motivation to produce behaviour

mirror neurons

understanding others’ emotional states and observational learning

name a disorder that impairs the way that mirror neurons work

Autism

what are some effects of violent video games

less empathy for injured people, desensitize viewers to violence, violent behaviour

what is seeing aggression in children associated with

the children acting more aggresively

memory

collection of several systems that stores info in different forms for differing amounts of time

what are the three types of memory stores

sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory

attention

selects what gets passed onto STM

retrieval

the act of remembering, bring info from LTM to STM

encoding

process of storing info in the LTM system

sensory memory

holds percepetual information for a very short amount of time

iconic memory

visual form of sensory memory (held for 0.5-1 sec)

echoic memory

auditory form of sensory memory (held for 5-10 sec)

remembering capacity

“seven, plus or minus two” units of info are possible to remember

what are the types of explicit / declarative memory

episodic and semantic memories

implicit / non-declarative memory

procedural and emotional conditional memories

episodic memory

recall of experienced events

semantic memory

knowledge and concepts

procedural memory

skills and actions (performing skills without recalling)

serial positioning effect

people recall first few things and last few things in a list but not much from the middle

primacy effect

first things that are learned out of a group are the easiest to remember because they have already been converted into long term memory

proactive interference

first things learned

retroactive interference

last things learned

rehearsal

repeating information until you don’t need to remember it anymore

phonological loop

storage component that relies on rehearsal and that stores info as sounds or an auditory code (temporarily holds verbal information)

what is the visuospatial sketchpad and where is it located

storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts, located in occipital and temporal lobes

feature binding

process of combining visual features into a single unit

episodic buffer

storage component of working memory that combines visuospatial and phronological loop into creating “story-like” episodes that get transferred into the LTM

central executive

control centre, examines what info is prioritized and focuses attention on what is most useful to remembre

procedural memory

muscle memory, learning processes that you don’t even remember learning

declarative memory

consciously aware of, can be verbalized

non-declarative memory

actions of behaviours you can remember and perform without awareness

consolidation

process of converting STM into LTM

anteroretrogade amnesia

inability to form new memories after brain injury, but can remember the past

retrograde amnesia

inability to remember before the brain injury, can learn new memories

shallow processing

encoding more superficial properties of a stimulus like sound or spelling of a word

deep processing

encoding information about an item’s meaning

what percent of recall does shallow processing give

14%

what percent of recall does deep processing give

96%

self-reference effect

thinking about how info is related to you

what are the two forms of memory retrieval

recognition and recall

recognition

identifying stimulus when presented to you

recall

you can remember something without it being presented to you

context-dependent memory

retrieval is more effective when it takes place in the same physical setting as when it was encoding