Midterm Study Guide for Psychology Foundations

Psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Biopsychosocial approach

Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors.

Random sample

Selection method ensuring every individual has equal chance.

Current perspectives

Various viewpoints in psychology's understanding of behavior.

Random assignment

Participants randomly allocated to groups for experiments.

Biological perspective

Focuses on genetics and physiological processes.

Evolutionary perspective

Studies behavior through the lens of natural selection.

Behavior Genetics

Examines influence of genetics on behavior.

Experimental group

Group exposed to treatment in an experiment.

Control group

Group not exposed to treatment for comparison.

Independent variable

Manipulated factor in an experiment to test effects.

Cognitive perspective

Focuses on mental processes like thinking and memory.

Humanistic perspective

Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.

Sociocultural perspective

Examines how culture influences behavior.

Dependent variable

Measured outcome in an experiment affected by independent variable.

Confounding variable

Extraneous factor that may affect experiment results.

Placebo

Inactive treatment used to compare against active treatment.

Cognitive biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm in judgment.

Single-blind

Participants unaware of group assignment in study.

Double-blind

Both participants and researchers unaware of group assignments.

Ethics

Moral principles guiding research conduct.

Informed consent

Participants must be fully informed before agreeing.

Scientific method

Systematic process for investigating phenomena.

Theory

Well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the world.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction derived from a theory.

Operational definition

Specific explanation of abstract concepts in measurable terms.

Replication

Repetition of a study to confirm findings.

Generalizability

Extent to which findings apply to broader populations.

Naturalistic Observation

Studying behavior in natural environments without manipulation.

Correlational research

Examines relationships between variables without manipulation.

Measures of central tendency

Statistical measures including mean, median, and mode.

Mean

Average value calculated by summing data points.

Median

Middle value in a sorted list of numbers.

Mode

Most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

Positive correlation

Both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation

One variable increases while the other decreases.

Scatterplot

Graphical representation of correlation between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

Numerical index of the strength and direction of relationship.

Standard deviation

Measure of data dispersion around the mean.

Case study

In-depth analysis of an individual or group.

Meta-analysis

Statistical analysis combining results from multiple studies.

Survey

Method for collecting data from a large group.

Structured interview

Standardized format for gathering qualitative data.

Population

Entire group from which samples may be drawn.

Sample

Subset of a population used for research.

Representative sample

Sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.

Stratified sample

Population divided into subgroups for sampling.

Experimental research

Investigates cause-and-effect relationships through manipulation.

Statistical significance

Likelihood that a result is not due to chance.

Percentile rank

Percentage of scores below a particular score.

Oxytocin

Hormone associated with bonding and social behaviors.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances affecting mental processes and behavior.

Agonists

Substances that enhance neurotransmitter activity.

Antagonists

Substances that inhibit neurotransmitter activity.

Reuptake inhibitors

Drugs that block neurotransmitter reabsorption.

Twin studies

Research comparing similarities between identical and fraternal twins.

Adoption studies

Research examining similarities between adopted individuals and their families.

Family studies

Research assessing traits among family members.

Central Nervous System

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.

Neuron

Basic unit of the nervous system.

Brain stem

Controls basic life functions like breathing.

Glial cell

Supportive cells in the nervous system.

Reflex arc

Pathway for reflex actions.

Medulla

Controls autonomic functions like heart rate.

Reticular activating system

Regulates wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions.

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movements and balance.

Limbic system

Involved in emotion and memory.

Neural transmission

Process of sending signals between neurons.

All-or-nothing principle

Neuron fires completely or not at all.

Depolarization

Change in a neuron's membrane potential.

Refractory period

Recovery phase after neuron fires.

Resting potential

Neurons' stable, inactive state.

Reuptake

Process of neurotransmitter reabsorption by neurons.

Threshold

Minimum stimulus required to trigger a response.

Corpus callosum

Connects the brain's left and right hemispheres.

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain involved in complex functions.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers transmitting signals across synapses.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Increase likelihood of neuron firing.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Decrease likelihood of neuron firing.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.

Norepinephrine

Involved in arousal and alertness.

Glutamate

Main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

GABA

Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers released during stress or pain.

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in pain perception.

Adrenaline

Hormone that prepares the body for fight-or-flight.

Brain plasticity

Brain's ability to reorganize and adapt.

EEG

Measures electrical activity of the brain.

fMRI

Measures brain activity by detecting blood flow.

Circadian rhythm

Biological clock regulating sleep-wake cycles.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep stages.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep associated with dreaming.

Sleep stages

Different phases of sleep cycle.

Insomnia

Difficulty in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Disorder causing excessive daytime sleepiness.

Sleep apnea

Breathing interruptions during sleep.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking during deep sleep.

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulus needed for detection.