Psych Exam 3

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially produces no specific response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

neutral stimulus triggers a conditioned response → unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Describe Process of Classically Conditioning a behavior

• Step 1: Begin with a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that produces an unconditioned response.

• Step 2: Pair the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly.

• Step 3: Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

Why is taste aversion different from standard classical conditioning?

Taste aversion often requires only a single pairing of the neutral stimulus (e.g., food) and unconditioned stimulus (e.g., illness), and the time gap between them can be much longer compared to standard classical conditioning

Taste aversion

A form of conditioning that can occur after a single pairing of a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus, often with a longer time gap.

Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Extinguish

To weaken or stop a conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of the conditioned response after a period of extinction and rest.

Antecedents

What happens before a behavior

Behavior

The observable action

Consequences

What happens after the behavior

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing a stimulus to increase a behavior.

Conditioned Reinforcers

Stimuli that gain value through association with primary reinforcers.

Primary Reinforcers

Naturally satisfying stimuli, such as food and water.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after a set time period.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement at unpredictable intervals.

What was the significance of Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment?

Demonstrated observational learning; children imitated aggressive behavior modeled by adults.

Why do naturally occurring concepts tend to have “fuzzy” boundaries?

Real-world concepts often lack clear, defining features, making them open to interpretation.

Prototype Theory

1.  Comparing items to an ideal example

Exemplar Theory

1. Comparing items to specific examples in memory.

Feature Theory

Focusing on defining characteristics

 What is availability bias?

Overestimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

What is the conjunction fallacy?

Believing that specific conditions are more probable than general ones.

 What are framing effects?

Decisions are influenced by how information is presented, such as loss versus gain framing.

What is representativeness bias?

Judging likelihood based on similarity to prototypes.

What is anchoring bias?

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

Well Defined Problems

Clear goals and solutions

Ill-Defined Problems

Problems with ambiguous goals and solutions.

What are two barriers to problem-solving?

Functional Fixedness - Mental Set

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see alternative uses for objects

Mental Set

Relying on past strategies that may not work.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure ensuring a solution.

Heuristic

A shortcut for quicker problem-solving that is not always accurate.

Syntax

The structure of sentences in language.

What are some examples of heuristics?

Availability, representativeness, and anchoring.

Generativity

The ability to create infinite combinations of messages in language.

phonemes

Smallest sound units

morphemes

smallest meaning units

Syntax

Rules for sentence structure

Deep Structure

The underlying meaning of a sentence.

Surface Structure

How a sentence is phrased

Crying

The first stage of language development, occurring from birth to 4 weeks.

Cooing

The second stage of language development, occurring from 6 weeks to 6 months.

Babbling

The third stage of language development, occurring from 6 months to 8 months.

Holophrastic Speech

Single-word speech that occurs between 1 year and 18 months.

Telegraphic Speech

Two-word combinations that occur from 18 months to 2 years.

Critical Periods

Specific windows for acquiring skills, crucial for language development in early life.

What are the dimensions of the emotion map?

Valence (positive or negative) and arousal (intensity).

Valence

The positive or negative quality of emotional experiences.

Arousal

The intensity of emotion.

James-Lange Theory

emotion follows physiological arousal.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Theory suggesting that arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.

Schachter-Singer Theory

Theory suggesting that emotion is a result of arousal and cognitive labeling.

Appraisal Theory

Theory stating that emotion depends on evaluation of the situation.

Delayed Gratification

The ability to resist immediate rewards in favor of greater rewards later, as shown in the marshmallow experiment.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards.

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by internal satisfaction.

Conscious Motivation

Awareness of the reasons behind one's actions.

Unconscious Motivation

Motivation influenced by subconscious desires.

Homeostasis

The desire to maintain physiological balance as mentioned in drive theory.

Attribution Theory

The theory explaining how people determine the causes of behavior.

Optimists

Individuals who focus on positive outcomes.

Pessimists

Individuals who expect negative outcomes.

Daily Hassles

Minor, frequent annoyances that can lead to stress.

Traumatic Stress

Stress caused by major events that cause harm.

Chronic Stress

Prolonged exposure to stressors.

Stages of Grief

Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance are the five stages.

General Adaptation Syndrome

The three stages of stress response: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Resilient People

Individuals characterized by optimism, adaptability, and social support.

Emotion-Focused Coping

Strategies to manage emotional responses to stress.

Problem-Focused Coping

Strategies to tackle the source of stress.

Happiest People

Those with meaningful relationships, a sense of purpose, and gratitude.