Psych Exam 3

1. Identify the different elements of classical conditioning. (Voluntary)

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially produces no specific response.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

2. Describe the process of classically conditioning a behavior.

• Step 1: Begin with a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that produces an unconditioned response.

• Step 2: Pair the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly.

• Step 3: Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

3. Why is taste aversion different from standard classical conditioning?

Taste aversion often requires only a single pairing of the neutral stimulus (e.g., food) and unconditioned stimulus (e.g., illness), and the time gap between them can be much longer compared to standard classical conditioning.

4. Explain “generalization” and “discrimination” within classical conditioning.

• Generalization: The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response.

• Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

5. How do you “extinguish” a classically conditioned response? What is meant by “spontaneous recovery”?

• Extinguish: Present the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly until the conditioned response weakens or stops.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of the conditioned response after a period of extinction and rest.

6. What are the Antecedents, Behaviors, and Consequences of behaviorism?

• Antecedents: What happens before the behavior.

• Behaviors: The observable action.

• Consequences: What happens after the behavior.

7. What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement? How are they the same?

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a stimulus to increase a behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing a stimulus to increase a behavior.

• Similarity: Both strengthen behavior.

8. What is the difference between positive punishment and negative punishment? How are they the same?

• Positive Punishment: Adding a stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Similarity: Both aim to reduce behavior.

9. How do you extinguish an operantly conditioned response?

Stop providing reinforcement for the behavior, leading to a decrease in the behavior's occurrence.

10. What is the difference between conditioned reinforcers and primary reinforcers?

• Primary Reinforcers: Naturally satisfying, such as food and water.

• Conditioned Reinforcers: Gain value through association with primary reinforcers, such as money.

11. Describe the different schedules of reinforcement and the impact they have on behavior.

• Fixed Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (high response rate).

• Variable Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (resistant to extinction).

• Fixed Interval Schedule: Reinforcement after a set time period (scalloped response pattern).

• Variable Interval Schedule: Reinforcement at unpredictable intervals (steady response rate).

12. What was the significance of Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment?

Demonstrated observational learning; children imitated aggressive behavior modeled by adults.

13. Why do naturally occurring concepts tend to have “fuzzy” boundaries?

Real-world concepts often lack clear, defining features, making them open to interpretation.

14. Describe the three theories of concept formation/identification.

1. Prototype Theory: Comparing items to an ideal example.

2. Exemplar Theory: Comparing items to specific examples in memory.

3. Feature Theory: Focusing on defining characteristics.

15. What is availability bias?

Overestimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

16. What is the conjunction fallacy?

Believing that specific conditions are more probable than general ones.

17. What are framing effects?

Decisions are influenced by how information is presented, such as loss versus gain framing.

18. What is representativeness bias?

Judging likelihood based on similarity to prototypes.

19. What is anchoring bias?

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

20. Describe the different types of problems.

• Well-Defined Problems: Clear goals and solutions.

• Ill-Defined Problems: Ambiguous goals and solutions.

21. What are two barriers to problem-solving?

1. Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for objects.

2. Mental Set: Relying on past strategies that may not work.

22. What is the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic?

• Algorithm: Step-by-step procedure ensuring a solution.

• Heuristic: Shortcut for quicker problem-solving, but not always accurate.

23. What are some examples of heuristics?

Availability, representativeness, and anchoring.

24. Language is distinguished from animal communication by two properties.

1. Syntax: Structure of sentences.

2. Generativity: Creating infinite combinations of messages.

25. Know the following terms:

• Phonemes: Smallest sound units.

• Morphemes: Smallest meaning units.

• Syntax: Rules for sentence structure.

26. What is the difference between deep structure and surface structure?

• Deep Structure: Meaning of a sentence.

• Surface Structure: How it is phrased.

27. Describe the stages of language development.

1. Crying

   1. Birth -  4 Weeks

2. Cooing

   1. 6 Weeks - 6 Months

3. Babbling.

   1. 6 Months - 8 Months

4. Intonation Patterns 

   1. 8 Months - 1 Year

5. Holophrastic Speech 

   1. 1 Year - 18 Months

6. Telegraphic Speech 

   1. 18 Months - 2 years

7. Regulated use of language 

   1. 2 Years

8. Rare or complex Construction

   1. 5-10 Years

28. What are critical periods?

Windows for acquiring skills; crucial for language in early life (e.g., feral children).

29. What are the dimensions of the emotion map?

Valence (positive or negative) and arousal (intensity).

30. Describe the four theories of emotion.

1. James-Lange Theory: Emotion follows physiological arousal.

2. Cannon-Bard Theory: Arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.

3. Schachter-Singer Theory: Emotion is the result of arousal and cognitive labeling.

4. Appraisal Theory: Emotion depends on evaluation of the situation.

31. What was the significance of the “marshmallow experiment”?

Delayed gratification predicts future success.

32. What is the difference between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation?

• Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external rewards.

• Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by internal satisfaction.

33. What is the difference between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation?

• Conscious Motivation: Awareness of the reasons for actions.

• Unconscious Motivation: Influenced by hidden desires.

34. What is a good psychological reason to avoid pornographic material?

It may distort expectations of relationships or intimacy.

35. Drive theory involves homeostasis. What is this?

Behavior motivated by the desire to maintain physiological balance.

36. Explain the different elements of attribution theory.

• Internal versus External Attribution: Cause due to the person or situation.

• Stable versus Unstable Attribution: Cause is temporary or permanent.

37. What are the differences between optimists and pessimists?

• Optimists: Focus on positives.

• Pessimists: Expect negatives.

38. What determines whether you find an event stressful or not?

Your appraisal of the demands versus the resources available to cope.

39. Explain the difference between daily hassles, traumatic stress, and chronic stress.

• Daily Hassles: Minor, frequent annoyances.

• Traumatic Stress: Major events causing harm.

• Chronic Stress: Prolonged stressors.

40. What are the five stages of grief?

Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

41. What is our current understanding of grief?

Non-linear and varies by individual.

42. Describe the General Adaptation Syndrome.

Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages of stress.

43. What are the characteristics of resilient people?

Optimism, adaptability, and social support.

44. What is the difference between emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping?

• Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing feelings.

• Problem-Focused Coping: Solving the issue.

45. Who are the happiest people?

Those with meaningful relationships, a sense of purpose, and gratitude.