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Developmental psychology
The scientific study of systematic continuities and changes in human behavior across the lifespan, from conception to death.
Goals of developmentalists
To describe normative and ideographic development patterns, explain the factors causing development, and optimize developmental outcomes.
Thomas Hobbes' view on development
Believed in original sin, proposing that children are inherently selfish and require societal and parental discipline.
Jean Jacques Rousseau's view on development
Emphasized innate purity, suggesting that children are inherently good and that society corrupts them.
John Locke's view on development
Advocated for 'tabula rasa' (blank slate), proposing that children are born neutral, and their experiences shape their development.
Common methods in developmental psychology
Self-reports, observational methods, case studies, ethnography, and psychophysiological methods.
Reliability
The consistency of a measurement tool in producing stable results over time.
Validity
The extent to which a measurement tool accurately measures what it is intended to measure.
Independent variables
The variable manipulated by researchers to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
Dependent variables
The outcome being measured, influenced by changes in the independent variable.
Strengths of self-report measures
Easy to administer and cost-effective.
Weaknesses of self-report measures
Subject to social desirability bias and inaccuracies in recall.
Strengths of observational methods
Offers real-world insights.
Weaknesses of observational methods
Prone to observer bias and difficulty in controlling variables.
Strengths of case studies
Provides detailed information.
Weaknesses of case studies
Limited generalizability.
Strengths of ethnography
Culturally sensitive, rich contextual data.
Weaknesses of ethnography
Time-intensive and difficult to generalize.
Strengths of psychophysiological methods
Objective, provides biological insights.
Weaknesses of psychophysiological methods
May not fully capture complex psychological phenomena.
Correlational designs
Assess relationships between variables without manipulation and cannot establish causation.
Experimental designs
Manipulate one variable to observe its causal effect on another, using random assignment to control confounding factors.
Cross-sectional design
Compares different age groups at a single time point, quick and cost-effective but cannot infer individual changes over time.
Longitudinal design
Follows the same individuals over time, providing insights into developmental changes but is time-intensive and prone to attrition.
Sequential design
Combines elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, studying multiple cohorts over time.
Key ethical considerations in research with infants and children
Informed consent, protection from harm, risk-benefit ratio, confidentiality, and debriefing.
Four overarching themes in developmental psychology
Continuity vs. Discontinuity, Nature vs. Nurture, Active vs. Passive, Holistic Nature.
Good scientific theories
Parsimonious, falsifiable, and heuristic.
Psychoanalytic Theories
Freud's psychosexual stages and Erikson's psychosocial stages.
Learning Theories
Includes classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory.
Cognitive-Developmental Theories
Piaget's four stages and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.
Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner's model of development within nested systems.
Principles of Heredity Transmission
Involves chromosomes, genes, and DNA, including processes like mitosis and meiosis.
Simple Dominant-Recessive Inheritance
Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles, e.g., dimples are dominant over no dimples.
Stages of Prenatal Development
Includes germinal stage (0-2 weeks) and embryonic stage (3-8 weeks).
Zygote
Fertilized egg that develops into a blastocyst.
Blastocyst
Stage of development before becoming an embryo.
Embryonic Stage
Period from 3 to 8 weeks of development.
Ectoderm
Layer forming nervous system and skin.
Mesoderm
Layer forming muscles, bones, and circulatory system.
Endoderm
Layer forming digestive system and vital organs.
Fetal Stage
Period from 9 weeks to birth with growth.
Teratogens
Agents causing harm to fetal development.
Rubella
Maternal disease causing severe fetal disabilities.
Myelination
Process of forming myelin sheaths around neurons.
Synaptogenesis
Formation of synaptic connections between neurons.
Cerebral Lateralization
Specialization of brain hemispheres for functions.
Survival Reflexes
Reflexes essential for infant survival.
Primitive Reflexes
Reflexes that disappear as brain matures.
Sensation
Raw input received by sensory organs.
Perception
Interpretation of sensory information.
Habituation
Decreased response to repeated stimuli.
Classical Conditioning
Learning by associating neutral stimuli with events.
Operant Conditioning
Learning through reinforcement or punishment.
Cognition
Mental processes involved in knowledge acquisition.
Cognitive Development
Changes in mental abilities throughout life.
Piaget's Cognitive Equilibrium
Mental balance from existing knowledge and experiences.
Assimilation
Interpreting new information using existing schemes.
Accommodation
Modifying schemes to incorporate new information.
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget's stage from birth to 2 years.
Preoperational Stage
Piaget's stage from 2 to 7 years.
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget's stage from 7 to 11 years.
Formal Operational Stage
Piaget's stage from 11 years onward.
Zone of Proximal Development
Difference between independent and guided learning.
Scaffolding
Support that is gradually withdrawn as competence increases.
Information Processing Perspective
Compares human mind to a computer system.
Sensory Store
Briefly holds raw sensory input.
Short-Term Store (STS)
Temporarily retains information for active use; capacity measured by memory span.
Long-Term Store (LTS)
Permanently stores information for retrieval later.
Executive Function
Regulates cognitive processes, such as attention and problem-solving.
Attention
Ability to focus on task-relevant information.
Inhibitory Control
Ability to suppress irrelevant information or behaviors.
Set-Shifting
Transitioning between strategies or tasks flexibly.
Memory Span
Maximum number of items one can recall.
Span of Apprehension
Amount of information that can be processed in a single glance.
Domain-Specificity
Expertise in specific domains enhances processing efficiency.
Rehearsal
Repeating information to retain it.
Organization
Grouping related items.
Elaboration
Connecting new information to existing knowledge.
Production Deficiency
Failure to produce strategies spontaneously.
Utilization Deficiency
Applying a strategy without gaining much benefit.
Siegler's Adaptive Strategy Choice Model
Proposes multiple strategies coexist and compete for use, with more sophisticated strategies favored as children grow older.
Selective Attention
Focusing on task-relevant stimuli while ignoring distractions.
Planful Attention
Systematic approach to processing information.
Cognitive Inhibition
Suppression of irrelevant responses or information.
Implicit Cognition
Unconscious thought processes.
Explicit Cognition
Conscious, deliberate thought processes.
Metacognition
Awareness and control of cognitive activities (e.g., planning, monitoring).
Fuzzy Trace Theory
Memory is stored along a continuum from exact details (verbatim) to general ideas (gist).
Schema Theories
Emphasize frameworks (schemas) formed from repeated experiences to interpret new information.
Scripts
Event-specific schemas, like the sequence of events at a restaurant.
Event Memory
Long-term memory for specific events.
Autobiographical Memory
Memory for personal life events, emerging in preschool years.
Infantile Amnesia
Inability to recall events before age 3, possibly due to preverbal encoding or lack of a coherent self-concept.
Child-Directed Speech (Motherese)
Characterized by a higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, slower speech, and repetition.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
A hypothetical brain mechanism preprogrammed for learning language.
Universal Grammar
A set of innate grammatical rules shared by all languages.
Grammatical Morphemes
Learn modifiers (-ing, plural -s) in a predictable order.
Overregularization
Applying rules to irregular words (e.g., "goed" instead of "went").
Simultaneous Bilingualism
Learning two languages from birth.
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