psychology - learning & cognition

psych quiz - 2/24/23

Learning

The process of acquiring new & relatively enduring information & behaviors.

Habituation

An organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus w/ repeated exposure to it.

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. Two stimuli (CC) or response + consequences (OC).

Cognitive learning

Acquisition of mental info, whether by observing events, watching others, or through language.

Classical conditioning

Type of learning where you learn to link 2 or more stimuli & anticipate events. Also referred to as CC.

Behaviorism

Psychology should only study observable behavior. Prioritizes objectivity.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

In CC, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned response (UR)

In CC, an unlearned, naturally occurring response.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

In CC, a stimulus that automatically/naturally triggers a response.

Conditioned response (CR)

In CC, a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

In CC, a stimulus that after association with a US triggers a CR.

Acquisition

In CC, initial stage when NS & US are linked so NS begins triggering CR.

Parts of learning

Change, behavior, experience

Higher-order conditioning

Procedure where CS in one conditioning experience is paired w/ new NS, creating a new (often weaker) CS.

Extinction (In CC)

Diminishing of a CR; occurs in CC when a US doesn’t follow a CS.

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization

Tendency after conditioning for similar stimuli to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

In CC, learned ability to distinguish CS & stimuli that do not signal a US.

Trace conditioning

Form of CC. CS begins & ends before US is presented.

Delayed conditioning

Form of CC. CS begins, US is presented, and then CS ends.

Simultaneous conditioning

Form of CC. CS & US present & end at the same time.

Backward conditioning

Form of CC. US is presented before CS.

Temporal conditioning

Form of CC. CS implemented for a fixed time period before the presentation of the US.

Respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Operant behavior

Behavior that operates of the environment, producing consequences.

Biofeedback

System for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Contiguity model (CC model)

Conditioning will occur whenever a CS & a US are paired closely. Since been debunked. First introduced by Pavlov.

Contingency model (CC model)

CS must reliably predict US for conditioning to occur. First introduced by Rescarla & Wagner.

Instrumental learning

Producing an environmental change that affects an organism’s behavior. Consequences after behavior. Introduced by Thorndike.

Thorndike’s law of effect

Behaviors are encouraged when followed by satisfying consequences & discouraged when annoying consequences.

Positive reinforcement

Behavior followed by desired stimulus.

Negative reinforcement

Behavior prevents an undesired stimulus.

Escape (reinforcement)

Occurs when a behavior terminates an aversive event.

Avoidance (reinforcement)

Occurs when a behavior happens in the presence of a signal that informs the organism that an aversive event is likely.

Positive punishment

Behavior followed by aversive stimulus, making behavior less likely to reoccur.

Negative punishment (omission training)

Appetitive stimulus prevented or removed after a behavior.

Primary reinforcers

Stimuli biologically relevant to organisms and capable of increasing probability of organism’s behavior toward them. No prior experience required for reinforcement.

Secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers

Neutral, but has taken on the reinforcing properties of a primary reinforcer by being associated w/ it.

Shaping

Technique where successive approximations of a behavior are reinforced. Behavior comes closer & closer to target behavior during training. Makes it possible to condition unlikely behaviors.

Chaining

Operant technique where an organism is required to perform several different behaviors in sequence before reinforcement. Complex strings can be maintained by one use of reinforcement this way.

Extinction (In OC)

Occurs in OC when a behavior stops resulting in the expected result. Not caused by prevention or avoidance.

Discriminative stimulus (S^D)

Stimulus that signals or informs organism of the availability of consequence. Valuable for behavior determination.

Continuous reinforcement

Every target behavior reinforced. Quickest way to train new behavior. Easily extinguished when no longer reinforced - extinction occurs.

Intermittent (or partial) reinforcement

Only some target behaviors are reinforced.

Fixed-ratio (Fr) reinforcement

Fixed/unchanging number of target responses before reinforcement is given. Procedures high rate of responding after brief pauses after reinforcement.

Variable-ratio (Vr) reinforcement

\# of responses required for reinforcement varies around some average, organism never nows how many responses are required for next reinforcement. AKA gambler’s schedule.

Fixed-interval (Fi) reinforcement

First target response after fixed interval of time is rewarded. Responses increase towards end of interval. “Scalloping.”

Variable-interval (Vi) reinforcement

Similar to Fi, but interval of time is random. Responses tend to be steady.

Aversive conditioning

Punishment most likely to be effective when intense & occurs immediately after behavior. Aversive means “causes dislike.”

Learned helplessness

Decrease in organism’s response after exposure to uncontrollable aversive events. Introduced by Seligman, who believed this helped explain depression.

Application of operant conditioning

Educational strategies (pop quizzes), behavior modification techniques, token economics, behavior therapy for disorders, animal training

Cognitive learning emphasizes…

…role of mental processes.

Insight learning

Sudden awareness of a solution to a problem. AKA epiphany.

Latent learning

Learning in the absence of apparent reinforcement.

Observational learning

Learning that takes place by watching another individual model the learning task. Introduced by Banduo.

Role of biology in learning

Learning is adaptive, enhances ability to survive. Important behaviors are reinforced, harmful behaviors punished. Similar to natural selection, but behavior changes within a lifetime.

Biological constraints

Innate predispositions that influence the likelihood of conditioning. Instinct can cause conditioning to not work (instinctive drift). Language is reinforced as an infant by what adults say around you. Culture influences choices & favorites. Environment can limit learning opportunities.

Parts of declarative/explicit memory

Working memory, episodic memory, semantic memory

Parts of nondeclarative/implicit memory

Priming, conditioning, motor-procedural memory

Multiple systems model

Memory is made up of multiple memory systems that can work independently of one another. Declarative & nondeclarative memory.

Declarative memory

A memory system controlled consciously, intentionally, flexibly. Involves effort & intention. Mnemonics are helpful. Mediated by hippocampus & frontal lobes. Declines with age.

Working memory

Short-term memory system that allowed us to store & process limited amounts of information of an immediate sense. Lasts 2-18 seconds. Mental calculations.

Episodic memory

Long-term memory system that stores information about specific events/episodes of your life.

Semantic memory

Long-term memory system that stores general knowledge.

Nondeclarative memory

Influential memory without our knowledge. Mediated by cortieal areas, cerebellum, & basal ganglia.

Priming

Automatic or unconscious process that can enhance the speed/accuracy as a result of past experience of a response.

Repetition priming

From repetition, just reading.

Semantic priming

Associating with other things

Procedural memory

Memory of processes involved in completing a task after the task is well learned & has become automatic.

Partial report method

Asking a person to recall only a portion of the stimuli they were asked to remember.

Whole report method

Asking a person to recall the entire stimuli they were asked to remember.

Sensory register

System that works briefly & stores info received until it is further processed.

Iconic memory

Memory for visual info

Echoic memory

Memory for auditory info

Working memory

Short-term system to store and process info currently being thought about. Small capacity. Info typically encoded acoustically.

Chunking

Grouping information together in your brain. Increases capacity and memory.

Parts of Baddeley’s model of working memory

Phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, central executive

Baddeley’s model of working memory diagram

Phonological loop

Short-term vocal store.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Short-term visual & spatial store.

Episodic buffer

Integrates info from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, & long-term memory.

Central executive

Controls other parts of Baddeley’s model of working memory.

Serial position

Effect an item’s position on a list has on how well it’s recalled.

Primacy effect

Concept that first items of a list are more likely to be remembered. Eliminated by spaced studying.

Recency effect

Concept that last items of a list are more likely to be remembered. Eliminated by distractions.

Prospective memory

Memory of tasks to be completed in the future. Requires working & long-term memory. 2 parts: intention & awareness.

Information processing model

Long-term memory encoded, stores, & retrieves info. Influences later access.

Level of processing framework

Info is processed differently depending on instructions & the task can vary from shallow to deep processing. Deep = better memory.

Shallow processing

Focuses of physical characteristics over meaning of an item.

Deep processing

Focuses on meaning of an item.

Massed practice

Individual attempts to learn material all in one setting. AKA cramming. Not as effective as spaced practice for retention.

Spaced practice

Studying at spaced intervals. Good for retention.

Self-referent encoding

Organize info around your own experiences to elaborate better. Use personal connections.

Distinctiveness

Items unique to each other are better remembered.

Von Restorff effect

More likely to remember something different to it’s surroundings. Think black swan in a group of white swans.

Organization

Organizing info by category improves recall.

Subjective organization

Imposing a personal organizational strategy on an otherwise random group of info.

Testing effect

Taking a memory test can also enhance later retention.

Recognition (type of retrieval)

Recognizing familiar info. Think multiple-choice quiz.

Recall (type of retrieval)

Retrieval from memory. Think short-response quiz.