AP Psych: Unit 4

social psychology yay

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.

attribution theory

Heider’s theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (a situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution).

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental attribution error (which focuses on our explanations for others’ behavior).

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

stereotypes

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

discriminate

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

ingroup

“us” — people with whom we share a common identity.

outgroup

“them” — those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group.

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

persuasion

changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments.

norms

a society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior in individual and social situations.

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

informational social influence

influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.

obedience

complying with an order or a command.

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

tight cultures

a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.

loose cultures

a place with flexible and informal norms.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experiences.

psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

psychoanalysis technique

Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences — and the analyst’s interpretations of them — released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

unconcious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the partly conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

superego

the partly conscious part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

collective unconcious

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history.

terror-management

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.

thematic apperception test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

projective test

a personality test, such as the TAT or Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics and explore the preconscious and unconscious mind.

Roschach ink blot test

a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s levels of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological need. Often visualized as a pyramid, with needs nearer the base taking priority until they are satisfied.

self actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.

self transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. (Also known as unconditional regard.)

self concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

humanistic theorists

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.

traits

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

personalities inventories

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

empirically derived

a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups.

Big Five Factors

five traits — openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism — that describe personality. (Also called the five-factor model.)

social cognitive perspective

a view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

self

in modern psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

spotlight effect

overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).

self esteem

our feelings of high or low self-worth.

self efficacy

our sense of competence and effectiveness.

self serving bias

a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably.

individualist

a cultural pattern that emphasizes people’s own goals over group goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes.

collectivism

a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one’s extended family or work group).

motivations

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

physiological needs

a basic bodily requirement.

drive reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

affiliation need

the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group.

self-determination theory

the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

intrinsically motivated

the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

extrinsically motivated

the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups.

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard.

grit

in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

set point

the point at which the “weight thermostat” may be set. When the body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.

basal metabolic rate

the body’s resting rate of energy output.

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and, most importantly, (3) conscious experience resulting from one’s interpretations.

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions.