Cell Division & Metabolism

Cellular DIfferentiation

The process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type, allowing for the formation of different tissues and organs in multicellular organisms.

Crossing Over

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis

Cyclin-Dependent Kinase

A family of enzymes that regulate the cell cycle by phosphorylating specific target proteins, activating or inactivating their functions

Diploid

A cell or organism that has two complete sets of chromosomes, one set from each parent

Fertilization

The process by which male and female gametes unite to form a zygote, resulting in the establishment of a new organism

Haploid

A cell or organism that has one set of chromosomes

Homolous chromosomes

Chromosome pairs in a diploid cell that have the same genes but may have different alleles

Independent assortment

The process during meiosis where chromosomes are randomly distributed into gametes, leading to genetic variation

Maternal chromosome

A chromosome inherited from the mother, contributing to the genetic makeup of the offspring

Meiosis

A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in the formation of four haploid gametes

Mitosis

A type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells, maintaining the same chromosome number as the parent cell

p53

A tumor suppressor protein that plays a crucial role in preventing cancer formation by regulating the cell cycle and initiating apoptosis in response to DNA damage

Paternal chromosome

A chromosome inherited from the father, contributing to the genetic makeup of the offspring

Potency

Refers to the potential of a cell to differentiate into different cell types, with varying degrees of capability

Recombination

The process by which genetic material is physically mixed during meiosis, leading to new allele combinations in gametes

Sex chromosome

A type of chromosome that determines the sex of an organism, typically classified as X or Y chromosomes in mammals

Specialized cell

A cell that has undergone differentiation to perform a specific function within an organism

Synapsis

The pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, facilitating genetic recombination and exchange of genetic material

Absorption spectrum

The range of wavelengths of light that a substance can absorb, which is often used to identify the substance and its concentration

Accessory Pigment

A pigment that assists in photosynthesis by capturing light energy and transferring it to chlorophyll, enhancing the efficiency of the absorption spectrum

Acetyl coA

A molecule that serves as a crucial intermediate in the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats, entering the Krebs cycle to produce energy

Action Spectrum

A graph that shows the effectiveness of different wavelengths of light in driving photosynthesis

Anabolism

The metabolic process that builds larger molecules from smaller ones, requiring energy input

Anaerobic metabolism

The process of energy production in the absence of oxygen and produces byproducts such as lactic acid or ethanol.

Allosteric regulation

A regulatory mechanism in enzymes where the binding of an effector molecule at one site affects the enzyme's activity at a different site, altering its function

Calvin Cycle

A set of chemical reactions in photosynthesis that converts carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose using ATP and NADPH

Catabolism

The set of metabolic processes that break down molecules, typically releasing energy by converting larger molecules into smaller ones

Chemiosmosis

Movement of protons across a membrane, driven by a concentration gradient, which makes energy used in chemical reactions

Chemoautotroph

An organism that derives energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds and uses carbon dioxide as its carbon source

Chlorophyll

A green pigment found in plants that is essential for photosynthesis, as it absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs)

A series of chemical reactions in cells that generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2

Coenzyme

A non-protein molecule that assists enzymes in catalyzing biochemical reactions, often by providing functional groups

Cofactor

A non-protein chemical compound that is required for the functioning of enzymes, often helping in enzyme activity by stabilizing the enzyme structure or participating in the biochemical reaction

Compartmentalization

The process of dividing cellular processes into distinct regions or compartments, allowing for specialized functions and increased efficiency within the cell

Cyclic electron flow

Generates ATP without producing NADPH, utilizing only photosystem I for the transfer of electrons.

Electron transport chain

A series of protein complexes and other molecules that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors

Entropy

A measure of disorder or randomness in a system

Endergonic reaction

A chemical reaction that absorbs energy from its surroundings, resulting in products with higher energy than reactants

Exergonic reaction

A chemical reaction that releases energy to its surroundings, leading to products with lower energy than reactants

Feedback inhibition

A regulatory mechanism in cellular metabolism where the end product of a pathway inhibits an earlier step, preventing overproduction

Fermentation

A metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen

Glycolysis

The metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH in the process, occurring in the cytoplasm

Light dependent reactions

The first stage of photosynthesis, occurring in the thylakoid membranes, where light energy is converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH

Light independent reactions

The second stage of photosynthesis, also known as the Calvin cycle, where ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose

Metabolic pathway

A series of chemical reactions to convert substances into energy and building blocks for cells.

Negative feedback

A regulatory mechanism in biological systems where the output of a process inhibits its own production, helping to maintain homeostasis

Non-cyclic electron flow

The process by which electrons are transferred from water to NADP+ during photosynthesis, generating ATP and NADPH without recycling electrons back to photosystem II

Oxidative phosphorylation

The process of ATP production in the mitochondria, where electrons are transferred through the electron transport chain and energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate

Photolysis

The process of splitting water molecules into oxygen, protons, and electrons during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

Positive feedback

A process in which an initial change or stimulus leads to further change in the same direction, amplifying the original effect

Ribulose Bisphosphate (RuBP)

A five-carbon sugar that acts as a substrate in the Calvin cycle, where it combines with carbon dioxide to eventually produce glucose

Substrate-level phosphorylation

The metabolic process of generating ATP by transferring a phosphate group directly to ADP from a phosphorylated intermediate, rather than through the electron transport chain