Unit 4: Cognition

memory

persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and information retrieval

recall

measure of memory which the person retrieves learned information (fill-in-the-blank)

recognition

measure of memory which a person identifies items learned (multiple choice questions)

relearning

measure of memory assessing the amount of time saved when learning something again

encoding

process of getting information into the memory system (ex. extracting meaning)

storage

process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

immediate brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory holding a few items briefly before the information is is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system (knowledge, skills, and experiences)

working memory

newer understanding of short-term memory adding conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information and of retrieved information from long-term memory

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one consciously knows a “declare” (declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information like space, time, and frequency and of well-learned information like word meanings

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (nondeclarative)

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; picture image memory not lasting more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 secs

chunking

organizing items into familiar units; often occurring automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, using vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

tendency for distributed study/practice to yield to better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study/practice

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than rereading information (test-enhanced learning)

Shallow-processing/encoding

encoding on basic levels (structure or appearance of words)

Deep processing/encoding

encoding semantically; tends to yield to best retention (meaning of words)

Semantic memory

explicit memory of facts/general knowledge

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

memory consolidation

neural storage of a long-term memory

long-term-potentiation LTP

increased in cell firing potential after brief rapid stimulation; neural basis for learning and memory

priming

activation often unconsciously of certain associations predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

Mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

serial position effect

tendency to recall the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

Anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde memories

inability to retrieve past information

proactive interference

forward-acting disruptive effect prior knowledge on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

backward-acting disruptive effect of new knowledge on the recall of old information

repression

psychoanalytic theory, basis defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts. feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (aka misattribution) heart of false memories

cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

mental image or best example of a category. (quick and easy method for sorting items into categories)

creativity

ability to produce new and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing available problem solutions to determine the single best

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

algorithm

methodical, logical rule/procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem (contrasts with the usual speedier, more error prone, use of heuristics)

heuristic

simple thinking strategy allowing us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; speedier but more error-prone

confirmation bias

tendency to search for information supporting our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

mental set

tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

representativeness heuristic

estimating likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent/match particular prototypes; leads us to ignore other relevent information

availability heuristic

estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; vividness leads us to presume such events are common

overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can affect decisions and judgements

intelligence

ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

general intelligence

according to Spearman and others, it underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

factor analysis

statistical procedure identifying clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score

emotional intelligence

ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

achievement test

test designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude test

test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude=capacity to learn

mental age

measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; level of performance associated with children of certain chronological age

intelligence quotient IQ

the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca)multiplied by 100 (IQ=ma/cax100), on contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

normal curve distribution

symmetrical, bell-shaped curve describing the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes

reliability

extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on 2 halves of the test, on alternative forms or the test, or on retesting

validity

extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

content validity

extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

predictive validity

success which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it’s assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior (aka criterion-related validity)

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence

ability to reason speedily and abstractly; decreases with age/late adulthood

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal studies

research following and retesting the same people over time

stereotype threat

self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

functional fixedness

cognitive bias limiting a person’s ability to use an object for anything other than its intended purpose

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accomadation

adapting current understanding to incorporate new information

Gambler’s fallacy

psychological bias occurring when someone mistakenly believes past events can influence future events that are independent of them

Sunk-cost fallacy

cognitive bias making you feel as if you should continue to poor money, time, or effort into situations

executive function

set of mental processes helping people manage everyday tasks, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

procedural memory

type of implicit memory storing information on how to perform tasks automatically without conscious thought

prospective memory

form of memory involving remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time

working memory model

theory describing how the brain temporarily stores and manipulates information to support complex cognitive tasks

central executive

responsible for controlled processing in working memory, including directing attention, maintaining task goals, decision making, and memory retrieval

phonological loop

component of working memory model dealing with spoken and written material

visuouspatial sketchpad

component of working memory temporarily storing and manipulating visual and spatial information; responsible for non-verbal information like color, shape, location, and kinesthetic information

multi-store model

psychological theory describing human memory as having 3 separate stores: SR sensory register, STM short term memory, and LTM long term memory

levels of processing model

theory stating the way information is encoded affects how well its remembered; more deeply processed information is more likely to be remembered rather than superficially processed infromation

structural processing

type of processing involving remembering physical characteristics of a word/stimuli like appearance/sound (considered to be shallow level processing)

phonemic processing

processing including remembering the word by the way it sounds

semantic processing

process of understanding and interpreting the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. Its a broad concept involving both lexical semantics (word meaning) and nonverbal conceptual knowledge

method of Loci

mnemonic device, trick used to help store and retrieve information; imagining a physical location to place the objects in that mental space corresponding with the things that are needed to be remembered

categories

real-world grouping of things that share similar characteristics

hierarchies

processing information by dividing it into logical levels, beginning with the most general and moving to specific

massed practice

cramming large amounts of information in a concentrated session

distributed practice

learning technique involving studying material in multiple short sessions over long periods of time

primacy effect

tendency to best recall the first things on a list

recency effect

tendency to best recall the last items on a list

maintenance rehearsal

process of repeating information to keep it in short term memory

elaborative rehearsal

memory technique involving connecting new information to existing knowledge to help it stick in your long term memory

memory retention

ability to store and recall learned information/experiences

autobiographical memory

recollection of events that took place in our lives and when they happened (personal facts, DOB, )

Alzheimer’s disease

progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical function