2402 Final Exam Review Topics

Flashcards for reviewing key concepts, terms, and functions relevant to the topics discussed in the lecture notes.

What are the main functions of blood?

To transport nutrients, oxygen, hormones, and waste products; regulate body temperature and pH; and protect against infections.

What determines blood types?

Blood types are determined by the presence or absence of specific antigens and antibodies.

Where does blood cell production occur?

Blood cell production occurs primarily in the bone marrow.

What is hematocrit?

Hematocrit is the percentage of blood volume that is occupied by red blood cells.

What is anemia?

Anemia is a condition characterized by a deficiency of red blood cells or hemoglobin.

What is polycythemia?

Polycythemia is an excessive increase in the number of red blood cells.

What is the pathway of blood flow through the heart?

Blood flows from the body into the right atrium, through the right ventricle, to the lungs, back to the left atrium, and into the left ventricle before being pumped to the body.

What is the cardiac conduction pathway?

The pathway includes the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers.

What does an ECG measure?

An ECG measures the electrical activity of the heart, displayed in waves and complexes.

How does calcium affect heart function?

Calcium ions are crucial for muscle contraction, increasing the force of contraction in heart muscle.

What are the functions of blood vessels?

To transport blood, regulate blood pressure, and facilitate exchanges between blood and tissues.

What happens to blood vessels during exercise?

During exercise, blood vessels dilate to increase blood flow to muscles.

What is the baroreceptor reflex?

A mechanism that helps regulate blood pressure by detecting changes and triggering responses.

What is the function of the lymphatic system?

To transport lymph, filter it through lymph nodes, and support the immune system.

What distinguishes innate from adaptive immune responses?

Innate responses are immediate and non-specific, while adaptive responses are slower but specific.

What is the importance of helper T cells?

Helper T cells coordinate the immune response and activate other immune cells.

What is pulmonary ventilation?

Pulmonary ventilation is the process of moving air in and out of the lungs.

What stimulates breathing?

Breathing is stimulated by increases in carbon dioxide levels and decreases in blood pH.

What are the effects of asthma on airflow?

Asthma causes constriction of airways, leading to reduced airflow and difficulty breathing.

What is the role of surfactant in the lungs?

Surfactant reduces surface tension in the alveoli, preventing collapse and enhancing gas exchange.

What hormones are involved in the body's response to dehydration?

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone are key hormones that regulate fluid balance.

What characterizes urinary tract infections (UTIs)?

UTIs are characterized by pain during urination, increased frequency, and bacteria in urine.

What triggers the micturition reflex?

The micturition reflex is triggered by bladder distention as it fills with urine.

How do kidneys compensate for electrolyte imbalances?

Kidneys adjust reabsorption and secretion of electrolytes to maintain homeostasis.

What are the main functions of the digestive system?

To break down food, absorb nutrients, and eliminate waste.

What is the significance of increasing surface area in the small intestine?

Increasing surface area enhances nutrient absorption.

What are homologs in the reproductive system?

Homologs are organs in males and females that develop from the same embryonic tissue.

What are the phases of the ovarian cycle?

The ovarian cycle includes the follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase.

How does spermatogenesis differ from oogenesis?

Spermatogenesis produces four sperm cells, while oogenesis produces one egg and polar bodies.

What does hCG do during pregnancy?

HCG supports the corpus luteum and maintains progesterone levels during early pregnancy.

What is the role of hormones during the ovarian cycle?

Hormones regulate follicle development, ovulation, and uterine changes.

What are the characteristics of water-soluble hormones?

Water-soluble hormones are usually peptide-based and can freely circulate in the bloodstream.

What are lipid-soluble hormones characterized by?

Lipid-soluble hormones are often steroid hormones that require transport proteins in the blood.

What is the difference in response time between the nervous and endocrine systems?

The nervous system responds quickly, while the endocrine system has slower, prolonged effects.

What types of inheritance exist in genetics?

Types of inheritance include autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked inheritance.

What is a Punnett square used for?

A Punnett square is used to predict genetic outcomes of offspring based on parental genotypes.

What factors affect gas exchange in the respiratory system?

Factors include surface area, permeability, and the difference in partial pressures of gases.

How do chemical buffers function?

Chemical buffers stabilize pH by absorbing excess H+ ions or releasing them as needed.

What is the role of primary and secondary lymphoid organs?

Primary organs produce lymphocytes, while secondary organs house and activate them.

What is the difference between cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity?

Cell-mediated immunity involves T cells, while humoral immunity involves B cells and antibodies.

What are the different classes of antibodies?

The classes of antibodies include IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD, each with specific functions.

What is the role of CD4 T cells in the immune system?

CD4 T cells help activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells, boosting the immune response.

How does asthma affect gas exchange?

Asthma leads to constricted airways, reducing airflow and impairing gas exchange.

What is the UTI anatomy related to?

UTI anatomy includes the urethra, bladder, ureters, and kidneys.

What happens to blood pressure during high blood pressure (hypertension)?

Blood vessels constrict or narrow, leading to an increase in systemic vascular resistance.

What is the function of the myometrium?

The myometrium is responsible for uterine contractions during childbirth.

What happens during hyperventilation?

Hyperventilation leads to decreased CO2 levels, causing respiratory alkalosis.

What is the significance of the renal system in fluid balance?

The renal system adjusts urine output and nutrient reabsorption to maintain fluid balance.

How does puberty differ in males and females?

Puberty onset, growth patterns, and physical changes differ significantly between genders.

What are the body cavities?

Body cavities include the cranial cavity, thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity, and pelvic cavity.

What are directional terms in anatomy?

Directional terms describe positions: anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, medial, and lateral.

What are the anatomical planes?

Anatomical planes include sagittal, coronal (frontal), and transverse planes.

What is the definition of homeostasis?

Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a stable internal environment.

What role do hormones play in the body?

Hormones regulate various physiological processes, including metabolism, growth, and reproduction.

What are the anatomical features of the respiratory system?

Key features include the nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, and alveoli.

What is the role of glucagon in metabolism?

Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogen breakdown.

What are the physiological effects of adrenaline?

Adrenaline increases heart rate, blood flow, and energy availability during stress.

What are the risks of blood doping?

Blood doping can lead to increased blood viscosity, higher blood pressure, and heart complications.

What is the excretory function of kidneys?

The kidneys filter waste products from the blood and maintain electrolyte balance.

What is the role of the spleen?

The spleen filters blood and helps produce and recycle red blood cells.

What are the implications of high blood glucose levels?

High blood glucose can lead to diabetes complications, including neuropathy and retinopathy.

What is the process of fertilization?

Fertilization is the union of sperm and egg, resulting in the formation of a zygote.

What is the role of estrogen in the female reproductive system?

Estrogen regulates the menstrual cycle and promotes the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

What are the metabolic consequences of acidosis?

Acidosis can lead to decreased enzyme activity and impaired cellular functions.

How is puberty initiated in individuals?

Puberty is initiated by hormonal changes signaling physical and reproductive maturity.

What are the differences between an artery and a vein?

Arteries carry blood away from the heart, while veins return blood to the heart.

What are the functions of the skeletal system?

Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell production.

What is the importance of the corpus luteum?

The corpus luteum produces hormones that support pregnancy following ovulation.

How do vaccines work?

Vaccines stimulate the immune system to recognize and combat specific pathogens.

What is the function of B cells?

B cells produce antibodies that target specific antigens.

What are the consequences of respiratory alkalosis?

Respiratory alkalosis can cause confusion, muscle twitching, and spasms.

What are some common blood tests?

Common blood tests include CBC, blood glucose, and lipid panels.

What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?

Type 1 diabetes is autoimmune, while type 2 is associated with insulin resistance.

What are the effects of high blood pressure?

High blood pressure can damage arteries and increase the risk of heart disease.

What are the characteristics of the endometrium?

The endometrium is the inner lining of the uterus that thickens during the menstrual cycle.

What are the main functions of the pancreas?

The pancreas regulates blood sugar levels and produces digestive enzymes.

What is the overall purpose of the immune system?

To protect the body from pathogens and foreign substances.

What influences the speed of nerve impulse transmission?

The presence of myelin and the diameter of the nerve fibers.

How does the body respond to low blood pressure?

The body increases heart rate and constricts blood vessels to raise blood pressure.

What factors can disrupt homeostasis?

Factors can include stress, disease, and environmental changes.

What is the primary function of platelets?

To aid in blood clotting and prevent excessive bleeding.

How does the body regulate temperature?

Through processes like sweating, shivering, and altering blood flow.