2402 Final Exam Review Topics

Final Exam Review Topics

Miscellaneous

  • Regional Terms: Terms used to describe specific areas of the body relative to other areas.

  • Directional Terms: Terms that explain the position of one structure relative to another (e.g., anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral).

  • Anatomic Planes and Sections: Concepts that refer to the methods of dividing the body into sections for study (e.g., sagittal, coronal, transverse).

  • Body Cavities: Spaces within the body that house organs and structures, including the cranial, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.

Chapter 18: Blood

  • Functions of Blood:

    • Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide through red blood cells (RBCs).

    • Distribution of nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

    • Regulation of body temperature, pH, and fluid balance.

    • Protection against infections through immune functions.

  • Functions of Blood Components:

    • Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): Carry oxygen.

    • White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): Part of the immune system, defend against pathogens.

    • Platelets (Thrombocytes): Involved in blood clotting.

  • Blood Types:

    • Antibodies: Proteins in the blood plasma that recognize foreign antigens.

    • Antigens: Molecules on the surface of red blood cells that determine blood type (A, B, AB, O).

    • Transfusions: The process of transferring blood into a patient’s circulation; must match blood types to prevent reactions.

  • Blood Cell Production:

    • Occurs in bone marrow.

    • Hormone: Erythropoietin stimulates the production of RBCs.

    • Stimulus: Low oxygen levels (hypoxia) trigger erythropoiesis.

  • Hematocrit:

    • Definition: The proportion of blood volume that is occupied by red blood cells.

    • Norms: Typically 38-45% in healthy adults.

    • Anemia: Condition characterized by low hematocrit or hemoglobin levels.

    • Polycythemia: Increased hematocrit, often due to dehydration or a bone marrow disorder.

Chapter 19: Heart

  • Blood Flow Through the Heart:

    • Pathway: Blood flows from the body into the right atrium → right ventricle → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → body.

    • Composition: Blood is oxygen-poor in the right side of the heart and oxygen-rich in the left side of the heart.

  • What Causes Blood Movement:

    • Contraction of the heart muscle (myocardium) creates pressure that pushes blood through the chambers.

  • Cardiac Conduction Pathway:

    • Sequence of electrical impulses from the sinoatrial (SA) node through the atrioventricular (AV) node and into the ventricles.

  • Electrocardiogram (ECG):

    • Waves/Complexes: P wave (atrial depolarization), QRS complex (ventricular depolarization), T wave (ventricular repolarization).

    • Significance of each component in heart function assessment.

  • Calcium's Effect:

    • Calcium ions play a crucial role in cardiac muscle contraction; higher calcium levels can enhance heart contractility.

Chapter 20: Blood Vessels

  • Functions of Vessels:

    • Transport blood throughout the body.

    • Regulation of blood flow and pressure.

    • Exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste.

  • Pressure Along Blood Vessel Path:

    • Blood pressure decreases as blood moves away from the heart through arteries, arterioles, and ultimately to capillaries.

  • Consequences of Blood Pressure Levels:

    • Conditions associated with low blood pressure (hypotension) include dizziness or fainting.

    • High blood pressure (hypertension) can lead to heart disease and other complications.

  • Blood Flow Changes at Rest vs. Exercise:

    • Increased demand for oxygen during exercise increases blood flow to muscles.

  • Effects of Blood Doping:

    • Practice of increasing red blood cell count to enhance athletic performance, raising ethical concerns and risks of cardiovascular issues.

  • Adjustment to Low Venous Pressure:

    • Body uses muscle pumps and valves in veins to facilitate the return of blood to the heart.

  • Baroreceptor Reflex:

    • Mechanism by which blood pressure is regulated through reflex responses to changes in blood vessel stretch.

Chapter 21: Lymphatic System

  • Function of Lymphatic System:

    • Return excess interstitial fluid to the bloodstream.

    • Maintain fluid balance in the body.

    • Facilitate immune responses and filter pathogens.

  • Primary and Secondary Organs:

    • Primary: Bone marrow, thymus (where lymphocytes are produced and mature).

    • Secondary: Lymph nodes, spleen (where immune responses are triggered).

Chapter 22: Immune System

  • Innate vs. Adaptive Immune Response:

    • Innate: Non-specific defense mechanisms (e.g., barriers, phagocytes) that respond quickly to pathogens.

    • Adaptive: Specific response involving lymphocytes (B-cells and T-cells) that takes longer to activate but provides memory.

  • Cell-Mediated vs. Humoral Immunity:

    • Cell-Mediated: Involves T-cells that destroy infected cells.

    • Humoral Immunity: Involves B-cells and the production of antibodies that neutralize pathogens.

  • Antibody Classes:

    • Different types of antibodies (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD) and their unique functions in immune response.

  • Immune Cell Functions:

    • Varied roles of different leukocytes in defending the body.

  • Importance of Helper T/CD4 Cells:

    • Critical in orchestrating the immune response and activating B-cells and cytotoxic T-cells.

  • Vaccines:

    • Prep of the immune system to recognize and combat pathogens by introducing a harmless form of the antigen.

Chapter 23: Respiratory System

  • Pathway of Air:

    • Sequence: Nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli.

  • Pulmonary Ventilation:

    • Definition: The process of air movement into and out of the lungs.

    • Process: Inhalation (diaphragm contracts, thoracic cavity expands) and exhalation (diaphragm relaxes).

  • Stimulus to Breathe:

    • Primarily regulated by CO2 levels in the blood detected by chemoreceptors.

  • Effects of Respiratory Diseases:

    • Asthma: Airway constriction, difficulty breathing.

    • Emphysema: Destruction of alveoli, reduced gas exchange efficiency.

    • Pneumonia: Alveoli fill with fluid or pus, impaired gas exchange.

  • Hyperventilation/Hypoventilation:

    • Hyperventilation: Excessive breathing, leads to low CO2 (hypocapnia), elevated pH (alkalosis).

    • Hypoventilation: Insufficient breathing, leading to high CO2 (hypercapnia), lowered pH (acidosis).

  • Gas Exchange:

    • Occurs in the alveoli where oxygen diffuses into the blood and CO2 diffuses out.

  • Surfactant Function:

    • Reduces surface tension in the alveoli, preventing collapse and aiding in lung expansion.

Chapter 24: Urinary System

  • Kidney Functions:

    • Regulate fluid and electrolyte balance, filter blood, remove waste products, produce hormones (e.g., erythropoietin).

  • Body's Response:

    • Dehydration: Release of aldosterone and ADH to conserve water.

    • High Blood Pressure: Release of natriuretic peptides to increase urine output.

    • Low Blood Pressure: Activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) to conserve volume and increase pressure.

  • Characteristics of Urine:

    • Normal urine is typically clear, light yellow; abnormalities may indicate disease (e.g., dark urine in dehydration).

  • Urinary Tract Infections (UTI):

    • Caused by bacteria, commonly affecting bladder or urethra.

  • Micturition Reflex:

    • The process of urination initiated by the stretching of the bladder, leading to neural signals for muscle contraction and relaxation of the sphincters.

Chapter 25: Fluid and Electrolytes

  • Compensations through Kidneys:

    • Regulation of electrolytes and acid-base balance through filtration and reabsorption.

  • Regulating Fluid Intake:

    • Controlled by thirst mechanisms activated by osmotic pressure or blood volume monitoring.

  • Arterial Blood Gases (ABG):

    • Measures to assess respiratory function; relates to conditions of acidosis vs. alkalosis:

      • Respiratory Acidosis: High CO2 from impaired respiration.

      • Respiratory Alkalosis: Low CO2 from hyperventilation.

      • Metabolic Acidosis/Alkalosis: Changes in bicarbonate levels.

  • Chemical Buffers:

    • Systems (e.g., bicarbonate, phosphate) that help maintain pH balance in the body.

Chapter 26: Digestive System

  • Organs:

    • Functions: Breakdown of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste.

    • Secretions: Enzymes and acids that aid digestion (e.g., saliva, gastric juice).

    • Functions of the Secretions: Facilitate chemical breakdown and prepare food for absorption.

  • Increasing Surface Area in Small Intestine:

    • Structures such as villi and microvilli significantly increase absorptive surface area, enhancing nutrient uptake.

Chapter 28/29: Reproductive System and G&D

  • Functions of Organs:

    • Male: Testes produce sperm and hormones (such as testosterone).

    • Female: Ovaries produce eggs and hormones (estrogen and progesterone).

  • Homologs of Males and Females:

    • Comparison of male and female reproductive structures that arise from common embryonic tissues.

  • Functions of Myometrium and Endometrium:

    • Myometrium: Muscle layer that contracts during labor.

    • Endometrium: Lining of the uterus, thickens and sheds during menstrual cycle.

  • Ovarian Cycle Phases Overlapping with Uterine Cycle Phases:

    • Phases where the uterine lining prepares for potential pregnancy; includes follicular and luteal phases.

  • Male Sexual Response:

    • Involves arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution phases governed by hormones and neural responses.

  • Differences between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis:

    • Spermatogenesis: Continuous process producing millions of sperm daily.

    • Oogenesis: Discrete cyclical process producing one viable egg per menstrual cycle.

  • Hormone Functions:

    • Roles of hormones in regulation and function of reproductive system processes and cycles.

  • Hormones and Follicle/Corpus Luteum Development:

    • Hormonal changes such as estrogen and progesterone levels drive changes in these structures during the ovarian cycle phases.

  • Stages of Development from Fertilization to Blastocyst:

    • Early development stages leading to implantation in the uterine lining.

  • Importance of hCG:

    • Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) vital in maintaining early pregnancy by signaling the corpus luteum to continue hormone production.

  • Semen and Seminal Fluid:

    • Composition and role in nourishing and transporting sperm.

  • Puberty in Males vs. Females:

    • Different hormonal changes and physical developments during sexual maturation of each gender.

Chapter 17: Endocrine System

  • Study Your Hormone Chart:

    • Familiarize with key hormones, their sources, and actions.

  • Diseases and Disorders:

    • Key diseases associated with hormonal imbalances or organ dysfunctions.

  • Water-Soluble vs. Lipid-Soluble Hormones:

    • Water-soluble hormones (e.g., insulin) act via receptors on cell surfaces.

    • Lipid-soluble hormones (e.g., steroid hormones) can pass through cell membranes and bind to intracellular receptors.

  • Relationship Between Hormones and Receptors:

    • Specificity and signal transduction mechanisms of hormone-receptor interactions.

  • Nervous System vs. Endocrine System:

    • Comparison of signaling mechanisms, response times, and effects between these two systems.

Heredity

  • Terms: Define key terms related to genetics (e.g., allele, genotype, phenotype).

  • Types of Inheritance: Explain different inheritance patterns (e.g., autosomal dominant, recessive, co-dominance).

  • Reading Punnett Squares and Pedigrees:

    • Understand how to predict inheritance patterns and trace ancestry or traits through generations.