Module 2.1-2.8c

Selective Attention

The ability to focus our conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed at something else.

Change Blindess

Failing to see changes in the environment; a form of Inattentional Blindness.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition where we perceive a certain way due to tendencies and assumptions.

Gestalt

An organized whole of information/stimuli created by our conscience perception.

Figure-Ground

The organization of the visual filed into objects (figures) and its surroundings (ground).

Grouping

The perceptual predisposition to organize stimuli into groups: proximity, similarity, and closure.

Visual Cliff

A lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young adults.

Binocular Cues

A depth cue that depends on the use of 2 eyes.

Convergence: when the images from both eyes are combined to perceive distance.
Retinal Disparity: When the images from both eyes are compared. The bigger the disparity, the closer the object.

Monocular Cues

A depth cue available to each eye alone.

Relative Clarity

Type of monocular cue where the closer objects are clearer than farther ones.

Relative Size

Type of monocular cue where if two objects are the same size next to each other, the smaller one is farther.

Texture Gradient

Monocular cue where closer objects have less smooth textures.

Linear Persepective

Monocular cue where parallel lines appear to meet in the distances.

Interposition

Monocular cue where if an object is in front of another, it is closer.

Strobic Movement

An illusion of motion experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying static images (animation).

Phi Phenomenon

An illusion of motion caused by 2 or more lights turning off an on (neon signs).

Autokinetic Effect

An illusion of motion of a static light within a dark room.

Color Constancy

Perceiving familiar objects to have a constant color, even if the illumination alters the wavelength reflected by the object.

Shape Constancy

Perceiving familiar objects to have a constant form even if the images the retinas receives is changing.

Size Constancy

We perceive an object to have the same size, even if we get closer or farther from it.

Critical Period

An optimal time when exposure to a certain stimuli/experience is needed in which afterwards there will be sensory restriction/loss.

Perceptual Adaptation

The ability to adjust to changed sensory input, like upside down glasses.

Cognition

All the mental abilities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Metacognition

Evaluation of our own cognition.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar things.

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a concept. It allows things to be easily categorized.

Schemas

A concept or mental mold which is used to interpret information.

Assimilation (mental)

Interpreting info based on previous schemas.

Accommodation (mental)

Adapting our schemas to incorporate new info.

Creativity

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. It is based off aptitude.

Convergent Thinking

Ability provide 1 answer like in the SAT.

Divergent Thinking

Ability to consider different options like in creative art projects.

Functional Fixedness

When prior experiences inhibit the ability to find creative solutions.

5 components of creativity

Expertise, Imaginative Thinking Skills, Venturesome Personality, Personal Motivation, and Creative Environment.

4 ways to boost creativity

Developing your expertise, allowing problems to be put on hold, time for the mind to defocus, experiencing other cultures and perspectives.

Executive Functioning

Cognitive skills that enable us to generate, organize, and implement goal-directed behavior.

Trial and Error

Problem solving strategy to keep trying until it works.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solutoin.

Hueristics

A simple thinking strategy (mental shortcut) that is speedy but may be prone to error.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution, which contrast problem-solving strategies. It causes activity in the right temporal lobe.

Comfirmation Bias

Seeking information that supports one’s views more than one’s that go against it.

Fixation

Inability to come to a new or different perspective once accustomed to an incorrect belief.

Functional Fixedness

Type of fixation, the tendency to approach a problem with a mindset that has already worked instead of forming a novel one.

Intuition

Effortless, immediate and automatic feelings/thoughts. It contrasts explicit, conscious thinking.

Representative Heuristic

A mental shortcut where quick judgments are made based off a stereotype/prototype ignoring all other relevant info.

Racial Bias, Gambler’s Fallacy

Gambler’s Fallacy

The tendency of people to heuristically judge future events if they follow a pattern.

Avaliability Hueristic

Making judgements based off how common it is in our memory, affected by how vivid, recent, or distinct that memory is.

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements.

Planning Fallacy

Overestimating our free time and time it takes to do work.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

The tendency to stick to the original plan because of the effort that has already been put into it, instead of switching to a better plan.

Belief Perserverance

Tendency to stick to our beliefs even when contrary evidence is presented.

Motivated Reasoning

When one’s beliefs subjectively access evidence instead of accommodating it to have a objective view.

Framing

The way an issue is presented, which can be used to nudge: encourage people to make certain decisions.

Memory

Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of info.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Disease that causes difficulty remembering as the brain is damaged and memory stripped away. It weakens the sense of self, ability to do routine tasks.

Super-Recognizers

People with extraordinary facial recognition.

Retention Measures

Examples of learning persistence that measure retention.
Recall - retrieving info not in the conscious awareness.
Recognition - Identifying previously learned terms.
Relearning - learning something quicker the 2nd time you learn it.

Memory Models

Models that help visualize how memories form and are processed.
- Computer Analogy (encode, store, retrieve)
- Connectionism Model (memories are products of neural network’s connections, and neuroplasticity allows strengthening of memories).

Multi-store Memory Model

Splits memory into external events, sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory that are encoded, rehearsed, and retrieved.

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Short-Term Memory

briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or forgotten.

Long-Term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. It includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working Memory

Synonymous to short term memory, a conscious, active processing of (1) incoming sensory info (2) info retrieved form long term memory.

Rehearsal

Process in the working memory that helps us retain memory by:
Maintenance Rehearsal: prolongs memory storage.
Elaborative Rehearsal: promotes meaning of information.

Phonological Loop

A memory component that briefly holds auditory info.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A memory component that briefly holds info about object’s appearance and location.

Central Executive

A memory component that coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and visuosaptial sketchpad.

Long-Term Potentiation.

The physical basis of memory, where there is an increase in a nerve’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.
Boosted by Glutamate, Creb, and Serotonin.
Inhibited by Propranolol.

Electroconvulsive Therapy

A passing electric current that will wipe out recent memories but not old ones as working memory is erased before being encoded.

Explicit/Declarative Memories

Retention of fact and experiences we can consciously know and declare.

Effortful Processing

Encoding of explicit memories that require attention and conscious effort.

Implicit/nondeclarative memory

Retention of learned skills or associations.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of implicit memories that are about incidental or well-learned info.
Includes Procedural Memory (the skill needed riding a bike) and Classical Conditioning (association of stimuli to anticipate events).

Automatic Processing Processes

We automatically keep track of Space (location of things), Time (the sequence of events that happen as you go through the day), Frequency (how often things occur)

Iconic Memory

Type of visual sensory memory with vivid details but one lasts 1/10 of a second.

Echoic Memory

Type of auditory sensory memory, that lasts for 3-4 seconds.

Chunking

effortful processing strategy that happens naturally, where info is organized into familiar, manageable units.

Mnemonics

effortful processing aids, esp. techniques that use imagery and organizational devices (Peg-Word system, Method of Loci, Acronyms).

Heirarchies

effortful processing strategy of dividing info into categories then into subcategories of narrow concepts or facts.

Spacing Effect

The tendency of distributed practice or studying to better enforce long-term memory than cramming.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving rather than reading off info. Type of distributed practice/repeated self testing using flashcards, questions, and attempts to teach someone else about a topic.

Shallow Processing

Basic encoding based on appearance of letters (structural encoding) and sound of words (phonemic encoding).

Deep Processing

Semantic (meaning) encoding based on the meaning of words.

Self-Reference Effect

The tendency to remember self-relevant info like passwords containing your birthdate.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personally experienced events.

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts/general knowledge.

Frontal Cortex (Memory)

Processes explicit memory. The prefrontal cortex recalls past experiences for the working memory. The left lobe recalls things like passwords while the right lobe recalls things like visual party scenes.

Hippocampus (Memory)

A temporal lobe structure located in the limbic system that holds temporary episodic and explicit memory for future consolidation.

Memory Consodilation

The neural storage of information form the hippocampus to the cortex, which occurs during deep sleep (N3).

Cerebellum (Memory)

Forms and stores the implicit memories from Classical Conditioning.

Basal Ganglia

Deep brain structures responsible for motor movement and facilitation of procedural memories and skills.

Infantile Amnesia

The lack of conscious memory for the first 4 years of one’s life. It occurs because children often don’t have the language skills to process explicit memories and the Hippocampus is the last brain structure to mature.

Memory Trace

A lasting physical change caused by the amygdala as memory is encoded, boosting memory formation.

Flashbulb Memory

A clear memory of an emotionally significant event. It can be vivid and deemed true to the owner, but becomes inconsistent with age.

Retrieval Cues

sensory memories that provoke other memories. The more retrieval cues, the more likely a memory is found.

Retrospective Memory

Memory of the past.

Prospective Memory

Memory of future intended actions.

Priming

the activation - often unconscious - of certain associations that predispose one’s perception, memory, or response.

Context-Dependent Memory

Remembering depends on our environment we are in. Visiting a childhood home provokes old memories.