Psychology unit 2

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another

neurotransmitters influence

Our mood and emotions (fear, pleasure, manading mood).

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and stress

agonists

drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

Antagonists

drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter

SSRIs

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

how a reflex works

Receptor receives stimuli -> sensory neuron transmits messages -> to interneurons (in spine) -> to motor neuron -> effector receives response from motor neuron to act

Interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Hormones vs. Neurotransmitters

Hormones move slower because they move through the bloodstream while neurotransmitters travel through synapses

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Epinephrine (adrenaline)

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress.

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

helps control alertness and arousal

pituitary glands

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

phrenology

the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.

lesion

a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

CT Scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

logitudinal fissure

indentation that separates the cerebrum into right and left hemispheres.

gyri

ridges of the brain

sulci

shallow grooves that separate gyri

brainstem

beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

pons

Part of the brainstem that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

gilal cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

sensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

visual cortex

The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes.

angular gyrus

transforms visual representations into an auditory code

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Why split-brain surgery is done

to treat epilepsy and laterlization

cells

The basic unit of structure and function in all living things

genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

heredity

the passing on of different physical and mental traits from one generation to another.

nature

Our genetics, biology, and heredity, is what shapes us today.

nurture

Our environment, how our parents raised us, what peers we had, the amount of education and wealth we had at our disposal, that shapes us as individuals.

Charles Darwin

argued that our behaviors and bodies were shaped through natural selection.

reciprocal determinism

environment, behaviour, and the individual can influence and impact each other.

epigenetics

the study of how the environment and a person’s behaviour affect their genes and how they work together.

brain plasticity

The adaptability of the brain to change in response to a person’s experience. This can be done by reorganizing or building new neural pathways.

the nervous system

the fast acting, electrochemical communication network that uses neurons and nerve cells to coordinate activities of the organism.

the endocrine’s system’s hormones

growth hormones, insulin, melatonin, estrogen, and testorene

the pineal gland

Controls the production of melatonin and regulates your sleep cycles.

thyroid gland

produces a thyroid hormone (when signaled by the pituitary gland) which helps regulate metabolism. The thyroid also produces a hormone known as calcitonin- which controls levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood.

parathyroid gland

small gland contained in the small area of the thyroid gland, and secretes parathyroid hormone-which is involved in control of calcium and phosphate metabolism.

pancreas

secretes hormones insulin and glucagon which together regulate blood sugar and carbs.

gonads

reproduce sex hormones

homeostasis

the regulation of the body’s internal environment.

the central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord. This area is reading incoming messages from the peripheral nervous system and sending orders to the rest of the body.

peripheral nervous system

the nerves that are outside the brain and spinal cord. They are taking information from the brain and sending it to the rest of your body, as well as picking up information from those other parts and sending it back to your brain.

affrent (sensory) neurons

neurons conduct impulses from outside the body to the central nervous system.

effrent (motor) neurons

neurons that transmit messages from the central nervous system to the body.

sensory receptors

receptor cells in sense organs that are sensitive to stimuli

somatic nervous system

sensory and motor neurons of the sense organs and the skeletal muscles. These muscles are mostly controlled voluntarily- comparted to the autonomic nervous system.

autonomic nervous system

autonomic responses are involuntary such as heart rate, digestions, perspiration (further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic).

sympathetic nervous system

neurons that facilitate the fight or flight response.

parasympathetic nervous system

controls rest or repair, enjoyment, and more. It stimulated digestion decreases heart rate, and more.

neurons

the basic functional unit of the nervous stem. send and receive nerve impulses and chemical signals.

action potential

the message being sent by the neuron through an electrical impulse travelling down the axon.

synapse

the junction between the sending neuron and the receiving neuron

synaptic gap (syanptic cleft)

the space between the axon terminal and the dendrite/ cell body of the receiving neuron where the neurotransmitters are released.

mirror neurons

type of neurons in the brain that makes us mirror the actions of another or yourself.

permeability

the ability for certain ions to cross the cell membrane.

resting potential

When the neuron has mostly negative ions inside and positive ions outside.

threshold

the minimum intensity of a stimulus that is needed to trigger and action potential.

repolarization

the movement of positive ions outside of the membrane after depolarization in order for the cell to return to its resting state.

refractory period

a short time when no other action potentials can occur until the axon is back in its resting state.

axon terminal

the knob-like branches at the ends of the axon that form junctions with other cells.

electrical synapses

for messages that need to be sent quickly and immediately, they have no space between the neurons.

chemical synapses

junctions between 2 neurons that use neurotransmitters to send neural signals.

excitary neurotransmitters

depolarizes the postsynaptic neurons- resulting in a greater likelihood of an action potential.