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memory
the ability to store and retrieve information over time
encoding
the processing of information so that it can be stored
storage
the retention of encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
multi-store model
An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
iconic memory
visual sensory memory
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years
working memory
active maintenance of information in short-term storage
central executive
the part of working memory that directs attention and processing
phonological loop
the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
visuospatial sketchpad
A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
levels of processing model
theory stating that deeper processing of information increases the likelihood that the information will be recalled
shallow encoding
encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds
structural encoding
shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
phonemic encoding
focuses on how words sound
deep encoding
encoding based on an event's meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience
chunking (grouping)
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
categories (grouping)
Grouping information into categories that share common attributes.
hierarchies (grouping)
organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels.
mneomics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
explicit memories
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
semantic memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
episodic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
implicit memories
unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
procedural memory
involves recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically
prospective memory
ability to remember things you need to do in the future
massed practice (cramming)
practice that can produce speedy, short term learning and high feelings of confidence
spacing effect (distributed practice)
our tendency to retain information more easily if we practice it over time in multiple sessions
maintenance rehearsal
A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it
elaborative rehearsal
a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way
method of loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
retrieval cues
Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior
recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
context-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.
state-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
primacy effect
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
the forgetting curve
A graph showing retention and forgetting over time.
encoding failure
failure to process information into memory
proactive interference
where old information conflicts with new information making it harder to remember
retroactive interference
where new information conflicts with old information making it harder to remember
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT)
knowing a word, but not being able to immediately recall it
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
infantile amnesia
the inability to remember events from early childhood (usually before age 3)
alzheimer's disease
a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning
repression
keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious
constructive memory
memory that utilizes knowledge and expectations to fill in the missing details in retrieved memory traces
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
massed practice
a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption
spacing effect
information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning
metacognition
awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.
developmental psychology
the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
nature vs. nurture
Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being?
continuity and stages
Is development a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages?
stability and change
Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?
longitudinal research
A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.
cross-sectional research
compares multiple segments of a population at a single time
psychosocial development
pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships
prenatal development
development from conception to birth
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
reflexes
specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation
rooting reflex
a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
developmental milestones
Characteristics and behaviors considered normal for children in specific age groups.
sensitive period
A limited phase in an animal's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.
fine motor skills
physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin
gross motor skills
physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
menopause
gradual ending of menstruation
sex (gender)
biological differences between male and female. Cultural and social classification of masculine and feminine. Determines social relations involving power
x chromosomes
The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two of these chromosomes; males have one. One of these Chromosomes from each parent produces a girl.
y chromosomes
the sex chromosome found only in males
gender
in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
gender identity
our sense of being male or female
gender roles
sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female
gender typing
The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.
masculine roles
strength, dominance, competition, independence, logical thinking, risk taking
feminine roles
emotional expressiveness, focus on relationships, empathy, interest in children/nurturance, attentiveness to appearance
ecological systems theory
views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment
authoritarian parenting style
parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child
authoritative parenting style
parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child's point of view
permissive parenting style
parents make few demands and rarely use punishment
temperament
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
contact comfort
Stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver