Ap Psych Tri 2 Exam

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237 Terms

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memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

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encoding

the processing of information so that it can be stored

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storage

the retention of encoded information over time

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retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

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multi-store model

An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.

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sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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iconic memory

visual sensory memory

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echoic memory

auditory sensory memory

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short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

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long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years

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working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

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central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

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phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

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visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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levels of processing model

theory stating that deeper processing of information increases the likelihood that the information will be recalled

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shallow encoding

encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds

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structural encoding

shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

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phonemic encoding

focuses on how words sound

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deep encoding

encoding based on an event's meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience

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chunking (grouping)

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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categories (grouping)

Grouping information into categories that share common attributes.

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hierarchies (grouping)

organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels.

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mneomics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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explicit memories

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

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semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

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episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

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implicit memories

unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have

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procedural memory

involves recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically

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prospective memory

ability to remember things you need to do in the future

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massed practice (cramming)

practice that can produce speedy, short term learning and high feelings of confidence

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spacing effect (distributed practice)

our tendency to retain information more easily if we practice it over time in multiple sessions

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maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

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elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

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method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

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retrieval cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

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recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

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recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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context-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

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state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

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mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

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primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

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recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

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testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

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the forgetting curve

A graph showing retention and forgetting over time.

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encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

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proactive interference

where old information conflicts with new information making it harder to remember

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retroactive interference

where new information conflicts with old information making it harder to remember

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tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT)

knowing a word, but not being able to immediately recall it

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source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

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anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

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retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

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infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood (usually before age 3)

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alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

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repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

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constructive memory

memory that utilizes knowledge and expectations to fill in the missing details in retrieved memory traces

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misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

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spacing effect

information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning

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metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

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developmental psychology

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

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nature vs. nurture

Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being?

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continuity and stages

Is development a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages?

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stability and change

Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?

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longitudinal research

A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.

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cross-sectional research

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

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psychosocial development

pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships

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prenatal development

development from conception to birth

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teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

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reflexes

specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

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rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

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maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

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developmental milestones

Characteristics and behaviors considered normal for children in specific age groups.

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sensitive period

A limited phase in an animal's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.

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fine motor skills

physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin

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gross motor skills

physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping

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visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

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menopause

gradual ending of menstruation

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sex (gender)

biological differences between male and female. Cultural and social classification of masculine and feminine. Determines social relations involving power

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x chromosomes

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two of these chromosomes; males have one. One of these Chromosomes from each parent produces a girl.

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y chromosomes

the sex chromosome found only in males

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gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

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primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

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secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

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sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

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gender identity

our sense of being male or female

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gender roles

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female

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gender typing

The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.

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masculine roles

strength, dominance, competition, independence, logical thinking, risk taking

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feminine roles

emotional expressiveness, focus on relationships, empathy, interest in children/nurturance, attentiveness to appearance

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ecological systems theory

views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

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authoritarian parenting style

parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child

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authoritative parenting style

parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child's point of view

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permissive parenting style

parents make few demands and rarely use punishment

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temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

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imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

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contact comfort

Stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver