Ap Psych Tri 2 Exam

memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

encoding

the processing of information so that it can be stored

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

multi-store model

An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

iconic memory

visual sensory memory

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

levels of processing model

theory stating that deeper processing of information increases the likelihood that the information will be recalled

shallow encoding

encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds

structural encoding

shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

phonemic encoding

focuses on how words sound

deep encoding

encoding based on an event's meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience

chunking (grouping)

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

categories (grouping)

Grouping information into categories that share common attributes.

hierarchies (grouping)

organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels.

mneomics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

explicit memories

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

implicit memories

unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have

procedural memory

involves recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically

prospective memory

ability to remember things you need to do in the future

massed practice (cramming)

practice that can produce speedy, short term learning and high feelings of confidence

spacing effect (distributed practice)

our tendency to retain information more easily if we practice it over time in multiple sessions

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

retrieval cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

context-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

the forgetting curve

A graph showing retention and forgetting over time.

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

proactive interference

where old information conflicts with new information making it harder to remember

retroactive interference

where new information conflicts with old information making it harder to remember

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT)

knowing a word, but not being able to immediately recall it

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood (usually before age 3)

alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

constructive memory

memory that utilizes knowledge and expectations to fill in the missing details in retrieved memory traces

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

spacing effect

information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

developmental psychology

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

nature vs. nurture

Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being?

continuity and stages

Is development a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages?

stability and change

Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?

longitudinal research

A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.

cross-sectional research

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

psychosocial development

pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships

prenatal development

development from conception to birth

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

reflexes

specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

developmental milestones

Characteristics and behaviors considered normal for children in specific age groups.

sensitive period

A limited phase in an animal's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.

fine motor skills

physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin

gross motor skills

physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

menopause

gradual ending of menstruation

sex (gender)

biological differences between male and female. Cultural and social classification of masculine and feminine. Determines social relations involving power

x chromosomes

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two of these chromosomes; males have one. One of these Chromosomes from each parent produces a girl.

y chromosomes

the sex chromosome found only in males

gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

gender identity

our sense of being male or female

gender roles

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female

gender typing

The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.

masculine roles

strength, dominance, competition, independence, logical thinking, risk taking

feminine roles

emotional expressiveness, focus on relationships, empathy, interest in children/nurturance, attentiveness to appearance

ecological systems theory

views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

authoritarian parenting style

parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child

authoritative parenting style

parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child's point of view

permissive parenting style

parents make few demands and rarely use punishment

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

contact comfort

Stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver