13.Confrontation in the Vietnam War

Johnson's Vietnam policy

Johnson's primary aim with Vietnam was to achieve a quick victory without committing the USA to the escalation of it's role in Vietnam.
But there is conflict in his thinking - how can he win a war without it becoming Americanised (USA having direct control of the conduct of a war)?
In January 1964 he agreed to OPLAN 34A - covertly increasing punishment on North Vietnam to force Hanoi to cease it's aggressive policies.
Overtly, he continued Kennedy's counterinsurgency strategy and also the increase of military 'advisors' (16.3k-23.3k).

Foreign support

USA's European allies were not convinced by Johnson's approach and so support from the international community began to diminish.
This lack of international support further encouraged Johnson to delay the USA's role escalating.

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, August 1964

An attack on a US naval vessel by a North Vietnamese force occurred in the Gulf of Tonkin.
In response, Congress presented Johnson with the power to take any action he felt necessary to resist attacks on US forces in Vietnam, without consulting congress.
It was like grandmother's nightshirt - it covered everything.

The situation in Vietnam deteriorating for USA

-China agreed to provide North with military supplies.
-USSR established diplomatic links with NLF, and also sent military equipment to the North.
-The first North Vietnamese military forces - the People's Army of Vietnam - moved down the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
-Vietcong strengthened their position's in the South
-A rise in anti-American feelings began in the South population as their response to the Gulf of Tonkin incident did nothing to strengthen the South's government.
-The South Vietnamese Army faced low pay, inadequate training and poor leadership.

USA's changing role in Vietnam

Johnson's success in the election and the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution confirmed that he was in a place able to increase the USA's role in Vietnam.
There was still no inclination whatsoever to move toward a diplomatic settlement.
Johnson simply thought that when faced with the economic and military might of the USA, the North would back down.

Operation Rolling Thunder, February 1965

After a Vietcong attack on army barracks and a US helicopter base Johnson ordered Operation Rolling Thunder.
It was a bombing campaign from 1965-1968.
Finally, the Vietnam was was becoming Americanised, and the USA were escalating their intervention.

North Vietnam's four-point proposal in April 1965

-US troops must withdraw from the South, in accordance with Geneva agreements.
-Neither the North nor South were to enter any military alliance with a foreign power during the division of Vietnam, also in accordance with Geneva agreements.
- South Vietnamese internal affairs should be dealt with by South Vietnamese people and without external interference.
-The peaceful reunification of Vietnam was only to be settled by the people of both zones.

Johnson's response

Johnson rejected these proposals, in fear of Vietnam reuniting and become a powerful communist state.
So instead he ordered two marine battalions, an air squadron and 20k troops to be deployed in Vietnam.
He publicly announced his decision to escalate the USA military role.
This strengthened the resolve of the North Vietnamese leaders to continue their revolution in the South.

Strengths and Weaknesses of both sides

It was November 1965 when the first significant engagement between US forces and North Vietnamese forces took place.
It was a conventional battle and the US faced around 300 dead, North Vietnam between 2000 and 3000.
Both sides saw this as a victory though - the US due to the high enemy casualty figure and the North as they held their position.
Both sides had significant strengths and weaknesses in relation to each other and it was clear.

US strengths

Bombing & search and destroy.
The USA definitely had the economic might, a massive effort was put into ensuring they had the most modern equipment in plentiful supply.
By 1967 about 1 million tons of supplies were arriving in the South each month.
Helicopters were also a major part of USA strategy: delivering troops without any ambush, recovering troops, and was a crucial attack weapon.
However, the two tactics the US chose to deploy suggest that the USA were not quite as strong as they appeared.

Bombing

Basic aim of US bombing was to destroy the North's economy and undermine Vietcong and Northern forces within the South.
This objective failed.
The North was agrarian with few centres of industrial products and few military targets.
US effort was undermined by the fact that any success they had were counteracted by China and USSR support (resources replenished).
Bombing also was used to prevent Vietcong operating as guerrilla fighters in jungles - Agent Orange chemical was used to defoliate jungles and remove this cover.
Agent Blue was sprayed over crops to deprive the enemy of food - this only further alienated Vietnamese peasants whose livelihood was destroyed and enemies continued.
There were also anti-personnel bombs (thousands of pellets were freed in an explosion), and napalm (gel that spread over a wide area and was set on fire), but many civilians were victims.

Search and destroy

This was intended to find and destroy enemies in jungle and rural villages.
US forces would arrive by helicopter and raid a village suspected of harbouring Vietcong.
However, it was impossible to correctly detect enemies, causing many innocent civilians to die, as well as homes, livestock and crops.
This contradicted US aims of engaging rural peasants as allies so they'd reject the Vietcong - they couldn't be violent toward civilians and then want to win over the hearts and minds of the same people.

US weaknesses

By 1968 any US strengths were outweighed by weaknesses.
The US ally - South Vietnamese army - were uncommitted to the struggle, their troops were untrained and therefore avoided any action.
Also, widespread TV and press coverage weakened US forces as images of South Vietnamese peasants being brutalised were shared.

North Vietnam's strengths

The North had determined troops and were clever in battle. They knew their country and their people.
Furthermore, the North had the support of communist superpowers USSR and China.
Their tactics were peasant support, guerrilla tactics, the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and support from USSR/China.

Peasant support

The Vietcong was strengthened by their ability to gain recruits from the anti-American rural peasantry in the South.
The guiding principles for NLF forces were:
-don't destroy crops or land
-always keep your word
-show peasants respect
-support the peasants
These methods won support, but if challenged the Vietcong were prepared to use violence - cooperation through terror.

Guerilla tactics

North Vietnamese forces adopted a wide range of guerrilla tactics to undermine US forces' moral and resolve:
-complex tunnel systems hid Vietcong troops
-booby traps were deployed in forests (e.g. troops who ambushed US forces or trip wires that set of grenades).

Ho Chi Minh Trail

A primary supply route that passed through Cambodia and Laos into the South.
It was a crucial supply line for both troops and equipment.
It was a regular target for US attacks, but never was disabled.

Support from USSR and China

In December 1964 China agreed to provide military supplies to the North, providing 80k guns, and this only expanded from the years 1964 to 1969.
The USSR provided surface-to-air missiles, MiG-21 jets and artillery systems.

North Vietnam's weaknesses

The North had a worrying degree of dependency on the USSR and China. And there was no guarantee of support from Southern peasants.

The Tet Offensive, January - February 1968

When fighting died down over the holiday linked to Get religious celebrations, the Vietcong launched a series of military attacks against US targets in South Vietnam.
The plan was to stimulate an uprising against Americans from the South.
The most ferocious fighting took place around Hue.
Communist troops had entered Hue on 31 January and the South's flag didn't fly again until the 24th February.

The end

For the Vietcong Tet was a massive defeat, very little support was gained from the South Vietnamese and 25k Vietcong were killed while 5000 were captured.
The Vietcong had been decimated.
This was a turning point for the US, Tet came at a time when there was growing disappointment, and the war correspondent had stated that the conflict had reached stalemate.
The US had no alternative strategy to military escalation, a strategy which'd failed.
And so Johnson's new Secretary of Defence, Clifford, advised de-escalation.
Tet was a psychological defeat and showed the USA that a quick end to the war with US victory was far away,
When Johnson did not stand for re-election, this marked a new point of Cold War action in Asia and the start of a new strategy.